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AGRICULTURE 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

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^^ 


AGRICULTURE 

A  Text  for  the  School  and  the  Farm 


By 

O.  H.  BENSON 

AGRICULTURIST.  UNITED  STATES  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 

and 

GEORGE  HERBERT  BETTS 

AUTHOR  OF  THE  MIND  AND  ITS  EDUCATION 
BETTER  RURAL  SCHOOLS.   ETC. 


WITH  ILLUSTRATIONS,  CHARTS  AND 
DIAGRAMS 


INDIANAPOLIS 

THE  BOBBS-MERRILL  COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS 

3966ft 


Copyright  1915 
The  Bobbs-Merrill  Company 


34-4-00*/ 


"I  know  of  no  pursuit  in  which  more  real  and 
important  service  can  be  rendered  to  any  country 
than  improving  its  agriculture." 

George  Washington 


AUTHORS'  ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

Acknowledgment  is  gratefully  made  to  the  Minister  of 
Agriculture,  Canada,  for  the  illustration  on  page  209;  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  for  the  illustra- 
tions on  pages  17,  40,  65,  68,  75,  'j'],  82,  85,  93,  105,  120,  125, 
129,  147,  149,  151,  186,  189,  193,  194,  196,  198,  209,  213, 
273,  278,  280,  284,  286,  298,  299,  303,  309,  317,  318,  321, 
325,  328,  35o»  352,  353,  355,  362,  364,  369,  397 ;  the  Poultry 
Department  of  the  Massachusetts  College  of  Agriculture, 
pages  357, 364, 366 ;  the  Kansas  State  College  of  Agriculture, 
pages  42,  45 ;  the  Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute,  page  173 ; 
the  Washington  State  College  of  Agriculture,  page  339 ;  the 
Iowa  State  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts,  pages 
15,  19,  28,  55,  123,  139,  243 ;  the  College  of  Agriculture  of 
the  Illinois  State  University,  pages  233,  239,  320,  323;  the 
College  of  Agriculture  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin, 
pages  187,  190,  192,  195,  199 ;  the  College  of  Agriculture  of 
the  State  University  of  Minnesota,  pages  348,  372 ;  the  Col- 
lege of  Agriculture  of  the  University  of  Ohio,  page  129; 
the  Yakima  Commercial  Club  of  the  State  of  Washington, 
pages  155,  182,  269,  338;  the  Crop  Improvements  Commit- 
tee, Board  of  Trade  Building,  Chicago,  page  39;  Wallace's 
Farmer,  Des  Moines,  Iowa,  page  393 ;  the  Agricultural  De- 
partment of  the  International  Harvester  Company  of  Chi- 
cago, pages  51,  68,  89,  135,  137,  142,  144,  157;  the  James 
Manufacturing  Company,  Fort  Atkinson,  Wisconsin,  pages 
239,  246,  411;  the  DeLaval  Separator  Company  of  New 
York  City,  page  383 ;  the  Lehigh  Portland  Cement  Com- 
pany, of  Chicago,  page  430;  the  Northern  Pacific  Railway, 
page  341 ;  the  Hoosier  Manufacturing  Company,  New 
Castle,  Indiana,  page  380,  and  the  David  McKay  Publish- 
ers, Washington  Square,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  pages  413,  414, 
415. 


PREFACE 

The  present  volume  attempts  what  has  not  yet  been  ac- 
complished in  elementary  texts  on  agriculture — the  combin- 
ing of  real  practical  information  with  concrete  home  and 
school  projects  to  he  carried  out  by  the  pupils.  Agriculture, 
of  all  subjects,  can  not  be  taught  from  within  a  text-book. 
Nor,  on  the  other  hand,  can  it  be  well  taught  by  the  teacher 
who  is  not  a  specialist  without  a  good  text-book  by  means 
of  which  to  unify  the  instruction  and  lead  to  an  intelligent 
interest  in  the  farm  and  its  problems.  Unless  the  pupils 
busy  themselves  with  actual  agricultural  activities,  the  study 
becomes  mere  theory  and  of  doubtful  value.  This  text  is  a 
guide  to  concrete  work  and  interest  on  the  farm,  in  the 
garden  and  about  the  home. 

Yet  the  text  is  more  than  a  laboratory  guide.  It  gives  a 
large  amount  of  practical,  scientific  information  wholly 
without  technical  terms.  Further,  this  information  is  al- 
ways so  immediately  related  to  definite  farm  projects  as  to 
have  meaning  and  application.  Scientific  facts  and  their  use 
go  hand  in  hand.  Theory  and  practise  are  never  divorced. 
The  old  maxim,  "Learn  to  do  by  doing,"  is  constantly  fol- 
lowed, and  the  doing  made  natural  and  worth  while  to  the 
child  by  being  connected  with  his  home  interests. 

Hardly  a  day's  assignment  occurs  in  the  book,  therefore, 
that  does  not  present  some  real  project  for  the  pupils  to 
carry  out  in  connection  with  the  farm  or  home  life.  Nor 
are  the  problems  set  the  child  lacking  the  information  and 
guidance   necessary  to  their  intellisfcnt   solution.     The   re- 


PREFACE 

quired  facts,  principles  and  descriptions  are  alwa^  at  hand, 
and  the  problem  or  project  made  the  means  of  teaching  some 
valuable  lesson  in  concrete  form. 

The  authors  believe  that  the  elementary  features  of  agri- 
culture can  be  successfully  taught  without  technicalities.  It 
has  been  their  aim  to  present  a  treatment  so  clear  that  chil- 
dren from  fourteen  to  sixteen  years  of  age  could  read  and 
profit  by  it  even  without  a  teacher.  They  have  also  tried  to 
make  the  subject-matter  so  vital  and  helpful  that  all  who  are 
interested  in  agriculture,  even  practical  farmers,  will  care  to 
read  it,  and  desire  to  carry  out  its  lessons  in  practise. 

Teachers  will  recognize  and  welcome  the  attempt  to  use 
the  study  of  agriculture  in  bringing  about  a  closer  relation 
between  the  school  and  the  home.  Not  only  teachers,  but 
county  superintendents  and  agricultural  agents  will  appre- 
ciate the  many  helpful  suggestions  concerning  Demonstra- 
tion Days,  Play  Contests  and  Agricultural  Club  Projects ; 
for  these  are  coming  to  occupy  an  important  place  in  agri- 
cultural education.  The  great  amount  of  care  given  to  make 
the  lessons  teachable  through  the  outlining  of  many  definite 
and  practical  laboratory,  field  and  home  projects  will  appeal 
to  all  who  use  the  text,  and  save  much  time  for  the  busy 
teacher. 

The  authors  gratefully  render  their  acknowledgments  for 
much  cordial  help  received  from  the  staffs  of  various  state 
colleges  of  agriculture  and  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture.  Especially  valuable  have  been  the  suggestions 
and  material  received  from  the  colleges  of  agriculture  of 
Iowa,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Ohio,  New  York,  Massa- 
chusetts, Alabama,  Minnesota,  Kansas  and  Nebraska. 


CONTENTS 

PART  I.    FARM  CROPS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I  Corn  Culture       ...........      1 

Corn  the  king  of  crops — The  "corn  belt" — The  corn  plant 
— Determining  the  stand — Stand  in  the  home  field — Corn 
enemies — Topics  for  investigation — Saving  the  seed — Types 
of  corn — The  selection  bed — Corn  judging  with  score-card 
— Testing  the  seed — Problems  and  experiments — Preparing 
seed  for  the  planter — Seed  bed  and  planting — Cultivating  ^ 
the  corn — Harvesting  and  storing — The  silo — Uses  of  corn  w^ 
— Topics  for  investigation — Corn  demonstrations — Corn 
play  contests — Corn  club  projects. 

II  Wheat 64 

Bread  the  staff  of  life — Importance  of  wheat — The  wheat 
states — Types  of  wheat — Topics  for  investigation — Growing 
the  crop — Diseases  and  insect  enemies — Treatment  of  fun- 
gous enemies — Treatment  of  insect  enemies — Problems  and 
experiments. 


Ill    Oats    .       .       »       .       .       .       . 80 

In: 
oats- 


Importance  of  oats  as  a  crop — The  oats  region — Types  of 
uats — Problems  and  experiments — Raising  the  crop — Har- 
vesting and  thrashing — Insect  enemies  and  diseases — Topics 
for  investigation — Wheat  and  oat  demonstrations — Play 
contests — Club  projects. 

IV  The  Potato       .       ,       .      .      *      .      .•      .       .       .       .      98 

Origin — Plant  and  tuber — Potatoes  as  a  farm  crop — The 
potato  region — Growing  the  crop — Harvesting  and  storing 
potatoes — Seed  selection — The  "tuber-unit"  method — Potato 
enemies — Problems  and  experiments — Potato  demonstra- 
tions— Play  contests — Potato  clubs. 

V  Forage  Crops 113 

The  place  of  forage  crops — Important  grasses  and  le- 
gumes— Region  and  extent  of  forage  crops — Uses  to  which 
the  forage  plants  are  put — Problems  and  experiments — 
Demonstrations — Club  projects. 


CONTENTS— (Continued) 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

VI  The  Clovers 119 

Wide  use  of  the  clovers — Red  clover — Study  of  the  plant 
— Value  of  red  clover  on  the  farm — Raising  red  clover — 
Seed  bed  and  seeding — Good  seed — Harvesting — Enemies 
and  their  control — Other  kinds  of  clover — Problems  for  in- 
vestigation. 

VII  Alfalfa     ......: 133 

Study  of  plant — Distribution  of  alfalfa — Alfalfa  as  a 
forage  crop — As  a  renewer  of  the  soil — Successful  raising 
of  alfalfa — Harvesting — Enemies — Topics  for  investigation. 

VIII  Other  Legumes        . 146 

The  cow-pea — Cow-peas  as  forage — As  a  soil  renewer — 
The  vetches — Varieties — Uses — Soy-beans — Uses  and  culti- 
vation— Feeding  value — The  peanut. 

IX  Meadows  and  Pastures       ........    154 

Importance  of  meadows  and  pastures — Requirements  of  a 
meadow — Meadow  grasses  and  legumes — Mixtures  for 
meadows — Care  of  meadows — Problems  for  investigation — 
Pastures — Requirements — Seed  mixtures — Care. 


PART  II.    HORTICULTURE 

X  The  Vegetable  Garden        ..,..„..      165 

Importance  of  garden — Location  and  soil — Plan — Table 
of  planting  and  rhaturing — Garden  culture — The  hotbed — 
Insect  enemies — Other  enemies — Problems  and  experiments 
— Garden  demonstrations — Play  contests — Oub  and  canning 
projects. 

XI  The  Fruit  Garden 180 

Profits  and  satisfaction — Soil  and  location — Plan — A  vari- 
ety list — Care  of  fruit  garden — Enemies  and  their  treatment 
— Spraying — Problems  and  experiments — Demonstrations — 
Play  contests — Fruit  clubs. 

XII  The  Tomato 201 

Importance  of  the  tomato — Varieties — Raising  the  crop — 
Pruning  and  staking — Harvesting  and  marketing — Problems 
and  experiments — Demonstrations — Play  contests — Clubs. 


CONTENTS— (Continued) 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XIII  Garden  and  Orchard  Sprays 208 

Indispensable  in  successful  gardening — Bordeaux  mixture 
— Use — Lime-sulphur — How  made  and  used — Arsenate  of 
lead — Mixing  and  applying — Paris  green — Kerosene  emul- 
sion— How  made  and  used — Resin-lime  mixture. 

XIV  Home  Canning  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables      .       .       .      217 

Value  of  home  canned  foods — Recipes  for  home  canning 
— Time  table  for  canning — Canning  outfits. 


PART  III.    THE  SOIL 

XV  Nature  of  Soil 225 

Origin  of  soil — Nature  of  soil — Organic  matter — Texture 
and  its  effects — Structure  of  soils — Structure  and  tilth — 
Erosion — Problems  and  experiments. 

XVI  Soil  Fertility  and  Plant  Growth 226 

Plant  food  and  soil  fertility — Loss  of  fertility — Maintain- 
ing fertility — Barnyard  manure  as  a  fertilizer — Preventing 
loss  from  manure — Application  to  soil — Green  manuring — 
Commercial  fertilizers — Use  of  lime  on  soils — Crop  rota- 
tion and  fertility. 

XVII  Soil  Moisture 251 

Forms  of  soil  water — Capacity  of  soils  for  capillary 
water — Tillage  and  soil  water — Soil  drainage — Surface  and 
tile  drains — Soil  demonstrations — Problems  and  experiments 
— Soil  play  contests — Club  work. 

PART  IV.     FARM  ANIMALS 

XVIII  Farm  Animals  and  Agriculture 265 

Work  animals — Animals  that  supply  food — Other  animal 
products — Topics  for  investigation. 

XIX  Cattle 272 

Dairy  cattle — Profitable  and  unprofitable  cows — The  dairy 
type — Selecting  dairy  cows  by  milk  tests — Dairy  breeds — 
Feeding  for  milk  production — Producing  clean  milk — Beef 
breeds — Judging  cattle — Tuberculosis  in  cattle — Experi- 
ments and  problems  —  Demonstrations  with  cattle  —  Play 
contests — ^Club  projects. 


CONTENTS— (Continued) 

CHAPTER  ^  PAGE 

XX  Horses ,  .      .      .      .296 

The  horse-raising  states  —  Classes  of  horses  —  Breeds  — 
Judging  horses  —  Common  defects  of  horses  —  Care  and 
training — Feeding :  work  rations — Topics  for  investigation — 
Demonstrations  with  horses — Play  contests — Club  projects. 

XXI  Swine 315 

Pork  region — Breeds  of  hogs — Care  hog  houses — Feeding : 
balanced  rations — Diseases — Prevention  and  treatment  of 
cholera^  Problems  and  experiments — Demonstrations — 
Play  contests — Club  projects. 

XXII  Sheep 336 

Importance  on  farm — Breeds  of  sheep — Feeding:  rations 
— Experiments  and  problems — Demonstrations — Play  con- 
tests— Club  work. 

XXIII  Poultry 346 

Importance  on  farm — Extent  of  industry — Breeds  of 
chickens-^Producing  chickens — Hens  and  incubators — Test- 
ing eggs — Feeding  chickens — Producing  and  marketing  eggs 
— Housing  poultry — Poultry  diseases — Topics  for  investiga- 
tion— Poultry  demonstrations — Play  contests — Club  projects. 


PART  V.    FARM  ECONOMICS 

XXIV  Farm  and  Home  Management 375 

Planning  the  farm  —  Administration  of  farms  —  Farm 
accounts — Important  rules — Ten  commandments  of  agricul- 
ture— Topics  for  investigation — The  farm  house — Other 
farm  buildings. 

XXV  The  Home  Grounds  and  Wood  Lot       ....      389 

Beautifying  the  home  grounds — Trees — The  lawn — The 
farm  wood  lot — Tree  enemies — Problems  and  experiments 
— Demonstrations — Play  contests — Tree  and  grounds  club. 

XXVI  The  County  Agricultural  Agent       ....      401 

Work  of  the  county  agent  —  Financial  support  —  The 
county  agent  and  the  school — How  to  make  use  of  the 
county  agent. 


CONTENTS— (Continued) 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XXVII    Farm  Implements  and  Mechanics       ....      408 

Importance  of  implements  and  tools — Farm  mechanics — 
Use  of  cement — Shop  work — Rope  tying  and  splicing — 
Problems  and  experiments — Play  contests — Club  projects, 

XXXVIII    Road  Building  and  Maintenance   ....      420 

Importance  of  good  roads — Types  of  roads — Location  of 
a  road — Qualities  making  a  good  road — Construction  of 
earth  roads — Maintenance — Topics  for  investigation— Road 
demonstrations — Road  clubs. 

XXIX    Birds  and  Other  Insect  Destroyers     ,       .       .       .      432 


Birds    and    their    food — Birds    helpful    to    agricultut 
Harmful  birds — Protecting  birds — Topics   for  investigation 
— Other  insect  destroyers. 

XXX    Miscellaneous  Information '     .      441 

How  to  remove  stains — Location  of  colleges  of  agricul- 
ture and  experiment  stations — Distance  apart  for  planting 
fruits  and  vegetables  —  Quantity  of  seed  per  acre  for 
planting. 


Index 


AGRICULTURE 


JO 
g 


AGRICULTURE 


PART  I.    FARM  CROPS 


CHAPTER  I 
CORN  CULTURE 

CORN  is  king  of  farm  crops.  The  value  of  the  corn 
crop  is  almost  equal  to  that  of  cotton,  wheat  and  oats 
combined,  and  totals  more  than  a  billion  dollars  annually. 
We  feed  our  stock  upon  corn,  eat  it  for  our  own  food  and 
use  it  in  many  other  ways.  The  welfare  and  prosperity  of 
millions  of  people  are  dependent  on  securing  a  good  crop 
of  corn. 

Three-fourths  of  the  corn  crop  of  the  world  is  grown  in 
the  United  States.  Each  year  we  produce  more  than 
2,500,000,000  bushels.  Should  we  load  this  enormous  crop 
into  wagons,  fifty  bushels  to  the  load,  and  allow  twenty  feet 
for  each  wagon  and  team,  the  line  would  reach  about  eight 
times  around  the  earth  at  the  equator. 

Taking  the  whole  country  together,  the  average  yield 
of  corn  per  acre  is  slightly  less  than  thirty  bushels.  The 
states  best  adapted  to  corn  raising  are  Illinois,  Iowa,  Ne- 
braska, Missouri,  Kansas,  Indiana  and  Ohio.  These  seven 
states,  which  are  called  the  "corn  belt"  of  the  United  States, 
raise  nearly  half  of  all  the  world's  corn.  In  them  the  yield 
is  somewhat  over  forty  bushels  to  the  acre.  This  is  a  much 
smaller  crop  than  could  be  raised  if  the  soil  were  enriched, 
and  greater  care  and  skill  used  in  growing  the  crop.     A 

1 


2  AGRICULTURE 

large  number  of  com  club  boys  in  different  states  have  pro- 
duced as  much  as  one  hundred  fifty  bushels  froni  an  acre, 
and  not  a  few  in  the  southern  states  have  raised  more  than 
two  hundred  bushels.  One  of  the  things  we  shall  try  to 
learn  in  this  book  is  how  to  raise  a  larger  crop  of  corn  from 
our  fields. 

1.     The  Corn  Plant 

Corn  belongs  to  the  grass  family ;  that  is,  it  is  a  member 
of  the  same  group  of  plants  as  timothy,  wheat,  rye,  or  blue- 
grass. 

In  order  to  study  the  corn  plant  itself,  each  of  the  class 
will  secure  from  a  near-by  field,  or  bring  from  home,  a  com- 
plete stalk  of  corn,  taking  care  to  save  as  much  of  the 
root  as  possible.  Then  use  the  text  as  a  help  in  studying 
the  plant. 

The  roots. — Examining  the  roots,  do  you  find  them 
tough  and  fibrous,  or  tender?  Do  the  roots  branch,  or  is 
there  a  central  tap  root?  At  earing  time  the  roots  of  a 
vigorous  plant  may  extend  down  several  feet,  and  spread 
out  so  that  they  meet  the  roots  from  other  hills.  The 
ground  of  a  corn-field  may  thus  be  completely  filled  with 
roots.  In  dry  seasons  the  roots  strike  deeper  than  in  wet 
seasons.  Why  ?  Would  you  expect  the  roots  to  run  deeper 
in  a  black  porous  soil,  or  in  a  hard  clay  subsoil? 

Are  there  roots  branching  from  the  lower  one  or  two 
joints  of  the  stalk,  thus  starting  from  above  the  top  of  the 
ground?  Roots  growing  in  this  way  are  called  brace  roots. 
They  act  like  the  guy  ropes  of  a  tent  pole,  and  hold  the  stalk 
erect  in  the  winds.  If  these  are  broken  off  by  close  plow- 
ing, or  destroyed  by  worms,  the  corn  is  easily  blown  down. 

The  stem. — How  long  is  the  stem?  What  is  its  girth 
just  above  the  root?  How  many  leaves  has  it?  From 
where  do  these  start?     How  are  they  attached?     Are  the 


A  good  stand  of  corn.    The  yield  was  105  bushels  to  the  acre. 
The  boy  tested  the  seed. 


4  AGRICULTURE 

edges  of  the  blades  longer  than  the  center?     What  proof 
have  you? 

The  length  of  the  stem  varies  with  different  varieties  of 
corn,  and  because  of  differences  in  the  season  or  the  soil. 
The  range  is  from  two  or  three  feet  to  fifteen  or  twenty  feet. 
The  stem  is  divided  by  joints  called  nodes;  the  sections  be- 
tween these  joints  are  called  internodes. 

Is  the  stem  round,  or  flattened?  Cut  the  stem  across 
and  note  the  structure.  Unlike  most  other  grasses,  corn  is 
not  hollow.  The  spongy  substance  with  which  the  hard 
outside  shell  is  filled  is  called  pith.  The  threads  found  run- 
ning lengthwise  through  the  pith  add  greatly  to  the-strength 
of  the  stalk. 

The  leaves. — ^The  leaves  are  important  in  the  growth 
of  the  plant,  since  in  them  the  plant  food  is  worked  over 
and  assimilated,  and  through  them  the  respiration,  or  breath- 
ing, of  the  plant  is  done.  The  leaves  are  large,  and  hence 
have  to  stand  much  tugging  in  the  wind.  Are  they  stronger 
because  of  their  sheath-like  form  of  attachment  ?  Will  they 
tear  as  easily  in  a  strong  wind  if  the  outer  edges  are  slight- 
ly longer  than  the  center?  Large  vigorous  leaves  indicate  a 
healthy  plant.  In  very  dry  weather,  the  leaves  curl  up  from 
the  edges.  This  is  a  useful  habit,  since  the  leaf  when  thus 
rolled  up  does  not  lose  so  much  moisture  as  when  fully 
open. 

Tassel  and  silk. — Strip  the  husk  carefully  from  an 
ear  in  the  milk  stage,  without  injuring  the  silks.  How 
many  silks  are  there?  Where  are  the  silks  attached  to  the 
ear?  While  tassel  and  silk  are  borne  on  different  parts  of 
the  plant,  yet  it  takes  both  together  to  make  the  complete 
flower  of  the  corn  and  produce  the  ear.  The  tassel  repre- 
sents the  male  part,  and  the  silk  the  female  part  of  the 
flower. 

The  work  of  the  tassel  is  to  produce  pollen.     This  sifts 


CORN  CULTURE  5 

off  in  fine  grains  just  as  the  corn  is  silking.  A  particle  of 
pollen  lodges  on  the  tip  of  a  silk,  and  a  growth  is  carried 
through  the  center  of  the  tiny  thread  to  its  root,  where  the 
kernel  forms.  The  pollen  in  this  way  fertilises  the  silks, 
one  silk  for  each  kernel  of  corn.  If  for  any  reason  no 
fertilization  occurs,  no  kernels  will  be  formed. 

The  pollen  grains  are  very  light,  and  may  be  carried  by 
the  wind  for  many  rods,  thus  fertilizing  the  silks  of  other 
plants  than  their  own.  This  is  called  cross-fertilization. 
The  reason  different  varieties  of  corn  planted  in  near-by 
fields  mix  is  because  the  pollen  is  carried  from  one  field 
to  the  other. 

Have  you  ever  seen  an  ear  with  part  of  the  kernels 
white  and  the  rest  red,  or  yellow?  How  is  this  to  be  ex- 
plained? A  small  patch  of  pop-corn  planted  near  field  corn 
turned  out  to  be  badly  mixed,  although  the  seed  used  was 
pure.     How  do  you  account  for  the  mixture? 

2.     Determining  the  Stand 

In  order  to  raise  a  full  yield  of  corn  we  must  first  of  all 
have  a  good  stand.  Corn  is  usually  planted  in  rows  about 
three  and  a  half  feet  apart  each  way.  On  good  com  land 
three  stalks  seem  to  make  the  best  hill.  It  is  plain  that  if 
the  hills  have  but  one  or  two  stalks  each,  or  if  whole  hills 
are  frequently  missing,  there  can  not  be  a  full  crop. 

Importance  of  a  good  stand. — Farmers  often  lose 
much  of  their  labor  and  a  large  amount  of  money  because 
of  a  poor  stand  of  corn.  It  requires  as  much  work  to  pre- 
pare the  ground  and  cultivate  the  corn  for  half  or  two- 
thirds  of  a  stand  as  if  every  hill  was  present  and  had  its 
three  stalks. 

How  is  it  with  the  farms  in  your  own  neighborhood? 
With  your  father's  farm?     What  kind  of  a  stand  do  the 


6  AGRICULTURE 

corn-lields  show?  The  best  way  to  answer  this  question  is 
to  go  out  into  the  fields  and  count  the  hills.  Tliis  is  the 
way  the  scientist  works ;  he  makes  sure,  and  does  not  guess. 
We  will  therefore  determine  the  stand  on  several  plots  se- 
lected from  different  parts  of  a  field  of  corn  and  discover 
whether  the  farmer  is  losing  labor  and  money  because  the 
stand  is  imperfect. 

Preparing  for  field  study. — Before  going  out  to  the 
field  rule  off  four  forms  like  the  following  in  your  note- 
book, each  square  to  represent  a  hill  of  corn : 

3.     Record  of  Stand  of  Corn 


PLOT    NO. 


Counting  stand  in  the  field. — Now  go  to  a  near-by  field 
and  select  what  appears  to  be  an  average  plot  of  corn,  ten 
hills  square.  Go  through  the  plot  carefully,  counting  the 
stalks  in  each  hill,  and  recording  the  number  in  the  proper 


CORN  CULTURE  7 

square  on  your  record  sheet.  Hills  having  more  than  three 
stalks  are  to  be  recorded  as  having  only  three,  as  three 
stalks  to  the  hill  make  the  best  stand  on  average  soil,  if 
planted  three  and  one-half  feet  each  way. 

Having  cornpleted  the  count  on  this  plot,  select  three 
other  plots  in  different  parts  of  the  field,  count  the  hills 
and  make  the  record  in  your  note-book  for  each  plot  sepa- 
rately. We  are  now  ready  to  estimate  the  stand  for  the 
entire  field.  To  do  this,  we  shall  need  to  work  out  the 
following  problems,  keeping  the  results  in  our  note-books : 

1.  If  every  hill  had  three  stalks,  how  many  stalks 
would  there  be  on  each  plot.'*  How  many  on  all  four 
plots  ? 

2.  yow  many  hills  in  each  of  the  plots  had  three  stalks? 
Two  stalks?  One  stalk?  No  stalk?  How  many  stalks 
altogether  in  each  of  the  plots?    In  all  the  plots  combined? 

3.  What  percentage  of  a  perfect  stand  do  all  four  plots 
average?  If  the  entire  field  averages  as  good  a  stand  as 
the  plots,  what  percentage  of  a  stand  has  it? 

4.  How  many  acres  in  the  entire  field?  How  many 
acres  did  the  farmer  plow  and  tend  which,  because  of  an 
imperfect  stand,  raised  no  corn  ? 

'5.  What  will  this  field  probably  yield  to  the  acre? 
Suppose  the  ears  would  still  average  the  same  size,  what 
would  it  yield  with  a  perfect  stand  ?  At  the  market  price  of 
corn,  what  difference  in  value  would  this  make  per  acre? 
For  the  whole  field? 

Counting  stand  in  home  fields. — After  having  made 
this  study,  you  will  naturally  want  to  know  about  your 
home  fields  of  corn.  Therefore  prepare  other  record  sheets 
in  your  note-books,  and  count  the  stand  on  four  different 
plots  of  your  father's  corn,  making  careful  records  as  you 
did  in  the  first  study.  Then  work  out  the  five  problems  for 
the  home  field  as  you  did  for  the  field  studied  at  school. 
Show  the  results  to  your  father,  and  talk  with  him  about 


8  AGRICULTURE 

tHe  cause  of  the  imperfect  stand.  Also  compare  your  re- 
sults with  the  stand  found  in  the  home  fields  of  5ther  mem- 
bers of  the  class,  and  see  if  you  can  discover  what  produces 
the  differences  in  stand.  Barring  bad  weather  at  planting 
time,  worms  and  other  pests,  at  least  a  ninety-five  per  cent, 
stand  should  always  be  secured. 

Barren  stalks  and  suckers. — Merely  having  the  right 
number  of  stalks  in  the  field  does  not  insure  a  crop,  however. 
These  stalks  must  bear  ears.  There  are  two  classes  of 
stalks  that  are  of  no  use,  barren  stalks  and  suckers. 

Strong  and  vigorous-looking  stalks  may  be  barren.  Bar- 
renness may  be  caused  by  weak  seed,  injuries  to  the  roots 
by  worms  or  insects,  diseases,  poor  soil,  drought,  or  too  thick 
planting.  Suckers  are  but  branches  from  the  parent  stalks, 
and  have  no  root  of  their  own.  They  are  worse  than  useless, 
for  they  seldom  bear  ears,  and  are  but  a  drain  on  the  stalk 
which  supports  them.  Suckers  are  caused  by  thin  planting, 
especially  in  rich  heavy  land.  There  are  also  some  strains 
of  com  which,  through  heredity,  are  likely  to  grow  suckers. 
Seed  from  sucker-bearing  stalks  should  not  be  planted. 

Counting  barren  stalks  and  suckers. — We  shall  now 
determine  the  percentage  of  barren  stalks  and  suckers  in  a 
field.  Take  either  the  plots  already  counted  for  stand  or 
new  ones,  and  go  over  them,  counting  the  ears.  Make  a 
record  sheet  of  squares  as  before.  In  these  squares  record 
(1)  the  number  of  stalks  that  has  two  ears,  (2)  that  has 
one  ear,  (3)  that  has  no  ear.  Do  this  for  each  of  four 
plots  ten  hills  square. 

Summing  Up  Results 

1.  What  percentage  of  the  stalks  bears  two  ears?  One 
ear? 

2.  What  percentage  of  stalks  is  barren?  If  this  per- 
centage holds  for  the  entire  field,  how  much  is  the  yield 


CORN  CULTURE  9 

reduced  per  acre,  supposing  the  field  as  it  now  stands  will 
yield  forty  bushels  ? 

3.  What  percentage  of  the  stalks  bears  suckers?  How 
many  of  the  suckers  had  ears? 

4.  What  do  you  judge  was  the  cause  of  the  barren 
stalks?    Of  the  suckers? 

4.     Corn  Enemies 

Plants,  like  animals,  are  subject  to  certain  diseases. 
Corn  is  usually  a  healthy  plant,  and  not  affected  by  as 
many  diseases  as  some  of  the  other  crops.  The  most  seri- 
ous enemies  of  corn  are  various  insects,  such  as  the  corn- 
root  worm,  the  corn-root  aphis  or  louse,  the  cutworm,  the 
ear  worm ;  and  such  animals  as  gophers,  squirrels  and  birds. 

The  corn-root  worm. — This  pest  is  responsible,  over 
a  large  area  of  the  country,  for  greater  loss  to  the  corn  crop 
than  any  other  cause  except  poor  seed,  and  often  probably 
inflicts  more  damage  than  all  other  insects  put  together. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  its  damage  in  the  corn  belt  alone 
exceeds  200,000,000  bushels  annually.  Because  the  root 
worm  is  very  small  and  does  its  work  under  ground,  it  is 
seldom  seen,  and  probably  could  not  be  identified  by  many 
farmers  to  whom  it  has  caused  thousands  of  dollars  of 
loss.  It  is  present  in  some  degree  in  almost  every  corn- 
field. 

At  full  size  the  root  worm  is  about  one-third  inch  in 
length,  and  as  large  around  as  a  pin.  It  is  whitish  in  color, 
with  its  head  and  the  first  segment  of  its  body  brown.  The 
root  worm  hatches  in  June  or  early  July,  and  reaches  its 
full  growth  by  the  first  of  August.  Soon  after  this  it  goes 
into  the  pupa  state,  and  in  a  few  days  comes  out  a  small 
green  beetle.  This  beetle  lays  the  eggs,  which  remain  in 
the  ground  over  winter  and  hatch  the  next  generation  of 
root  worms  the  following  spring. 

As  soon  as  the  young  worms  are  hatched  out  they  enter 


CORN  CULTURE  11 

the  roots  of  the  growing  corn,  burrowing  back  and  forth 
just  under  the  outside  covering.  Half  a  dozen  worms  are 
sometimes  found  in  the  one  root,  and  as  many  as  two  hun- 
dred in  a  single  hill.  The  worm  destroys  the  tender  part  of 
the  root,  which  turns  brown  and  rots  off,  leaving  only  the 
stubs  of  roots.  As  a  result,  the  stalk  of  corn  is  deprived  of 
its  means  of  securing  moisture  and  nourishment.  It  seems 
to  stand  still  instead  of  making  a  vigorous  growth,  and 
fires  badly  during  the  dry  weather  of  July  and  August. 
It  is  easily  blown  over,  especially  after  a  rain  when  the 
ground  is  soft.  The  yield  is  greatly  reduced,  and  the  ears 
are  light  and  chaffy ;  many  stalks  are  barren.  The  growth 
of  the  plant  is  retarded,  and  the  crop  is  later  in  maturing. 

There  is  no  way  of  stopping  these  pests  once  they  begin 
on  a  field  of  corn.  But  the  remedy  is  simple  for  the  next 
year — wherever  possible  plant  the  field  to  some  other  crop. 
For  this  will  leave  the  young  worms  with  no  food,  and 
they  will  all  die.  The  field  can  then  be  planted  to  corn 
again,  and  should  be  free  from  root  worms  for  at  least 
the  first  year.  Usually  corn  should  not  be  raised  for 
more  than  two  years  in  succession  on  the  same  field.  Es- 
pecially if  the  corn  goes  down  in  spots  in  August,  and  if 
the  roots  show  the  working  of  these  worms,  should  com 
not  follow  the  next  season.  If  proper  rotation  of  crops  is 
practised,  there  will  be  little  or  no  loss  from  the  root  worm. 

The  corn-root  aphis  or  louse. — Second  to  the  root 
worm,  the  wvrst  enemy  of  corn  is  the  corn-root  aphis.  This 
is  a  small  louse,  no  larger  than  the  head  of  a  pin,  and  of  a 
bluish-green  color.  These  lice  are  found  in  groups  on  the 
roots  of  corn,  from  which  they  suck  the  juices  intended  for 
the  growth  of  the  plant. 

The  corn-root  aphis  is  always  found  accompanied  by 
ants.     Indeed,  it  is  the  ants  which  carry  the  lice  to  the 


12  AGRICULTURE 

cdm  roots,  or  to  the  roots  of  certain  weeds  after  the  com 
roots  have  become  hard.  The  ants  take  this  ^are  of  the 
aphis  because  it  gives  out  a  sweet  substance  called  "honey 
dew,"  upon  which  the  ants  feed.  The  presence  of  many 
ants  in  the  corn-field,  especially  ant-holes  in  the  hill,  is 
a  sign  of  the  root  aphis. 

The  worst  damage  by  the  aphis  is  done  while  the  corn 
is  very  young.  The  lice  sometimes  destroy  the  roots  even 
before  the  plant  comes  up.  The  effect  of  their  work  on  the 
corn  roots  causes  the  plant  to  turn  yellow  and  take  on  a 
sickly  appearance.  If  they  are  very  severe  in  their  attack, 
the  tips  of  the  leaves  become  purplish,  and  the  stem  reddish 
in  color.  The  yield  of  the  crop  is  greatly  reduced,  and  its 
ripening  delayed. 

Rotation  of  crops  is  one  of  the  surest  remedies  against 
this  pest.  Harrowing  the  Held  before  the  corn  comes  up,  or 
while  it  is  small,  interferes  with  the  work  of  the  ants,  and 
hence  checks  the  ravages  of  the  aphis.  Keeping  the  fields 
clean  of  weeds  is  also  necessary,  since  the  lice  thrive  on 
the  roots  of  such  plants  as  smartweed  and  foxtail. 

Cutworms. — Cutworms  do  little  damage  except  on 
sod  land  which  has  been  in  meadow  or  pasture  for  a  num* 
ber  of  years.  They  are  a  grayish-brown  color,  and  grow 
to  an  inch  or  more  in  length.  Cutworms  work  at  night, 
cutting  the  young  stalk  of  corn  off  just  at  the  surface  of 
the  ground. 

One  remedy  for  cutworms  is  the  fall  plowing  of  sod, 
thus  exposing  the  insects  to  the  freezing  of  winter.  This 
will  greatly  reduce  their  number.  A  shorter  rotation  of 
crops,  leaving  the  field  in  sod  but  one  or  two  years,  will  also 
tend  to  destroy  the  cutworms. 

Wireworms. — Wireworms  also  make  thei^  home  in 
sod,  and  hence  are  worst  in  newly  broken  ground.    They 


CORN  CULTURE  13 

are  the  larvse  of  the  click-beetle,  whose  eggs  are  laid  in 
meadows  and  pastures  in  the  fall.  They  hatch  out  as  small 
reddish-brown  worms  in  the  early  spring.  The  worms  at- 
tack the  sprouting  kernel,  and  also  bore  holes  through 
the  young  plant.  Fall  plowing  and  rotation  of  crops  are 
the  best  remedies  against  the  wireworm. 

The  com  ear  worm. — The  worm  is  usually  found 
working  in  the  tips  of  corn  ears.  It  attacks  not  only  corn, 
but  cotton  and  many  other  plants. 

The  corn  ear  worm  lives  through  the  winter  in  the 
pupa  stage,  and  comes  out  in  the  spring  as  a  moth.  There 
are  several  broods  each  season,  but  only  the  last  does  any 
great  damage  to  the  corn.  The  harm  done  by  the  ear 
worm  is  not  great,  except  to  sweet  corn  intended  for  can- 
ning. There  is  no  certain  remedy  known,  though  fall 
plowing  is  thought  to  reduce  their  number. 

Smut. — The  most  common  disease  aflfecting  corn  is 
smut.  The  smut  masses  seen  on  growing  corn  are  pro- 
duced by  a  small,  parasitic  plant  which  lives  on  the  juices 
of  the  corn  plant.  Smut  spores,  corresponding  to  seeds, 
live  over  winter  in  the  soil,  or  may  be  distributed  in 
manure  spread  on  the  field,  or  may  even  be  blown  consid- 
erable distances  from  other  fields. 

The  slimy  black  masses  of  smut  are  found  on  the 
stalk,  leaves,  tassel,  or  ear.  Since  smut  must  live  ofif 
the  strength  of  its  host,  it  is  evident  that  the  corn  plant 
is  \^eakened  and  the  yield  reduced  by  the  presence  of  this 
disease.  There  is  no  effective  remedy  for  corn  smut,  though 
the  burning  of  smut  balls,  keeping  it  from  the  manure  used 
on  the  field,  and  the  rotation  of  crops  all  tend  to  control  it. 

Topics  for  Investigation 
1.     The  corn-root  worm  of  the  North  can  be  found  at 


14  AGRICULTURE 

work  only  from  late  June  to  early  August.  During  late 
August  and  September  the  worm  is  found  onlv  in  the  beetle 
stage.  Go  into  a  corn-field  and  secure  several  of  these 
beetles.  They  are  green,  and  about  twice  the  size  of  a  pin- 
head.    Learn  to  recognize  the  insect  at  sight. 

2.  If  possible  secure  a  number  of  the  pupae  of  the  corn- 
root  worm.  About  the  middle  of  August  they  can  be  found 
in  great  numbers  around  the  roots  of  corn  in  a  field  where 
the  worms  have  been  at  work.  Keep  the  pupae  in  warm 
moist  soil  in  a  box  covered  with  netting  or  glass  and  watch 
for  the  beetles  to  come  out. 

3.  Find  hills  of  corn  which  have  suffered  from  the 
corn-root  worm.  How  do  you  discover  where  they  have 
been  at  work?  Does  the  hill  pull  up  easily  as  compared 
with  a  good  hill?    What  is  the  condition  of  the  ear? 

4.  Observe  several  fields  that  have  been  in  corn  for  a 
number  of  years  in  succession.  Do  they  show  signs  of  the 
root  worm?  Compare  with  fields  on  which  a  rotation  of 
crops  has  been  grown. 

5.  Secure  several  ears  of  corn  in  which  the  ear  worm 
has  been  working.  How  does  the  worm  proceed  in  its 
attack?  Make  a  study  of  the  worm,  and  become  able  to 
identify  it  at  sight.  Would  you  want  to  eat  canned  sweet 
corn  from  a  field  which  had  suffered  from  these  worms  ? 

6.  Secure  samples  of  corn  smut  affecting  (1)  the  ear, 
(2)  the  tassel,  (3)  the  stem,  (4)  the  leaves.  Does  the 
stalk  look  healthy?  Is  the  ear  good?  After  the  smut  ball 
is  dry,  note  the  fine  powder  which  flies  from  it.  This  is 
the  spores  which  reproduce  the  plant  for  next  year. 

7.  If  possible,  secure  samples  of  the  corn-root  aphis, 
the  cutworm  and  the  wireworm.  Learn  to  identify  all  these 
accurately  and  quickly.  • 

8.  Other  such  enemies  to  be  noted  are :  the  corn  moth 
or  caterpillar,  the  stalk  borer,  the  white  grub  and  the  corn 
bill  bug.  If  possible,  secure  specimens  of  these,  learn  to 
identify  them,  tell  how  they  damage  the  crop  and  how  to 
exterminate  them. 

5.     Saving  the  Seed 

The  first  care  if  we  would  secure  a  good  stand  of  corn 
is  the  seed.    We  jnust  have  seed  that  will  grow  and  show 


Gathering  seed  before  it  freezes. 


The  difference  between  good  seed  and  poor  seed.  Each  picture 
shows  the  yield  from  one  acre  in  adjoining  fields.  Upper  pic- 
ture, poor  seed :  yield,  22.8  bushels ;  marketable,  73.9% ;  nub- 
bins, 26.1%  ;  seed,  none.  Lower  picture,  good  seed :  yield,  66.5 
bushels;  marketable,  S6.77o ;  nubbins.  6.3%;  seed,  7%. 


16  AGRICULTURE 

strong  vitality.  Most  of  the  poor  stands  which  we  discov- 
ered in  the  fields  we  have  just  been  studying  no  doubt 
came  from  seed  that  either  failed  to  germinate,  or  else 
threw  out  plants  so  weak  that  they  were  unable  to  live 
through  the  cold  damp  weather  of  early  spring. 

The  loss  from  poor  seed. — The  loss  from  the  planting 
of  poor  seed  is  enormous.  There  are  more  than  one  hun- 
dred million  acres  of  corn  planted  every  year  in  the  United 
States.  This  requires  some  sixteen  million  bushels  of  seed. 
But  of. these  sixteen  million  bushels,  it  has  been  estimated 
by  government  experts  that  three  million  bushels  fail  to 
grow  or  produce  barren  stalks.  Think  of  planting  three 
million  bushels  of  worthless  seed  corn  each  year! 

Let  us  see  what  this  great  waste  means.  The  average 
yield  of  corn  to  the  acre  in  the  United  States  is  slightly 
under  thirty  bushels,  or  only  one  small  ear  to  the 
hill.  For,  counting  3,556  hills  to  the  acre,  one  ten-ounce 
ear  to  the  hill  would  yield  almost  thirty-two  bushels  to  the 
acre;  and  an  ear  weighing  only  ten  ounces  is  little  more 
than  a  nubbin.  Our  farmers  are  therefore  averaging  but 
one  small  ear  to  the  hill  in  all  their  corn-fields.  If  they 
should  increase  the  stand  and  improve  the  corn  so  that 
from  each  hill  they  get  two  medium-sized  ears,  each  weigh- 
ing twelve  and  one-half  ounces,  the  yield  will  be  eighty 
bushels  to  the  acre  instead  of  thirty  bushels.  Will  it  not 
pay  to  select  good  seed? 

When  seed  corn  should  be  gathered. — There  is  no 
more  important  work  on  the  farm  than  the  selection  and 
care  of  seed  corn  for  the  next  crop.  Freezing  before  it 
is  fully  dry  almost  always  injures  the  seed  so  that  it  either 
will  fail  to  sprout,  or  else  will  produce  a  weak  plant.  Seed 
corn  should  therefore  be  gathered  as  early  in  the  fall  as  it 
is  well  ripened.  The  time  for  saving  seed  in  the  "corn 
belt"  is  from  September  twentieth  to  October  tenth. 


A 


|{ 


V 


]> 


1<] 


Illustration  of  the  yield  of  com  per  acre,  allowing  a  single  stalk 
for  each  hill  of.  31/2  feet.  (A)  28.8  bushels;  (B)  30  bushels; 
(C)  40  bushels;  (D)  45  bushels;   (E)  50  bushels. 


Stringing   seed   corn, — the   first   step.     The   second   step.     The 
string  completed. 


18  AGRICULTURE 

How  to  gather  seed  corn. — Securing  good  seed  re- 
quires that  seed  corn  shall  be  gathered  from  the  field  be- 
fore the  general  crop  is  harvested.  The  proper  way  to  se- 
lect seed  corn  is  to  pass  through  the  best  parts  of  the  field, 
row  by  row,  with  a  sack  slung  over  the  shoulder,  examin- 
ing each  promising-looking  ear  from  a  good  stalk  and  full 
hill,  and  taking  the  ear  if  it  proves  acceptable.  This  looks 
like  a  good  deal  of  work,  but  when  it  is  remembered  that 
twelve  to  fifteen  ears  will  plant  an  acre,  and  that  the  dif- 
ference between  a  yield  of  thirty  bushels  or  of  sixty  bush- 
els to  the  acre  may  result  from  having  good  seed,  it  is  well 
worth  the  time.  From  three  to  five  bushels  a  day  may  be 
selected  in  this  way — enough  to  plant  from  twenty-five 
to  forty  acres  of  next  season's  crop. 

The  right  kind  of  seed  hill. — Tn  selecting  ears  for 
seed  it  is  important  to  take  into  account  all  the  surround- 
ings of  the  plant.  It  is  plain  that  ears  grown  on  stalks 
which  stand  but  one  in  a  hill,  or  next  to  missing  hills,  have 
a  better  chance  to  grow  large  than  those  from  full  hills. 
A  large  ear  grown  under  such  favorable  conditions  might 
not  produce  so  well  as  somewhat  smaller  ears  grown  un- 
der less  favorable  conditions.  We  want  to  be  sure  that  the 
ear  is  good  size  because  of  something  in  the  nature  of  the 
ear  itself,  rather  than  from  what  has  happened  to  it  while 
growing.  Mature  good  ears  from  hills  having  three  stalks 
are  desirable,  for  this  condition  promises  a  good  yield.  The 
stalk  should  be  sturdy,  not  too  tall,  and  have  plenty  of 
broad  full  leaves. 

Curing  the  seed. — Caring  for  the  seed  after  it  is  picked 
is  as  important  as  its  selection.  The  great  thing  in  caring 
for  seed  corn  just  picked  from  the  field  is  to  give  it  a 
chance  to  dry  thoroughly.  To  do  this,  it  must  be  where  it 
can  get  plenty  of  circulating  air.  Tlie  ears  should  not 
touch  one  another,  for  then  they  will  not  dry  evenly.    Seed 


Seed  corn  hung  up  to  dry. 


Another  method  of  drying  seed  corn. 


20  AGRICULTURE 

corn  should  therefore  never  be  stacked  in  piles  or  thrown 
into  a  crib  after  it  is  gathered,  but  should  be  hung  up  in 
some  open  place  sheltered  from  the  direct,  sun,  if  the  weather 
is  still  hot,  and  from  all  rain  or  other  forms  of  moisture. 

One  of  the  simplest  and  best  ways  to  hang  seed  corn 
is  by  stringing  it.  By  this  method  each  string  con- 
tains a  dozen  ears — ^almost  enough  to  plant  an  acre.  To 
hang  corn  in  this  way,  cut  a  string  of  binding  twine  twelve 
feet  long,  and  tie  the  ends  together,  thus  forming  a  loop. 
One  person  should  operate  the  string,  and  another  handle 
the  ears.  Place  the  first  ear  in  the  strings,  and  pass  one 
end  of  the  loop  through  the  other  end,  tightening  down  to 
the  ear.  Place  the  next  ear  in  the  same  way,  and  keep  on 
until  the  string  has  all  been  taken  up.  Hang  the  stringer 
of  ears  up  in  a  uniformly  dry  place  and  it  will  need  no 
more  attention  until  time  comes  for  testing  the  seed.  This 
plan  should  be  followed  after  each  day's  picking,  not  even 
allowing  the  corn  to  lie  over  night  before  being  hung  to  dry. 

Another  plan  of  drying  out  seed  corn  is  to  lay  the  ears 
side  by  side  on  shelves,  where  there  is  free  circulation  of 
air,  and  where  mice  ajid  rats  can  not  reach  the  corn.  Where 
this  plan  is  followed,  the  shelves  should  be  made  of  slats, 
and  not  of  solid  boards,  so  as  to  allow  the  air  to  get  to 
all  parts  of  the  ear. 

Hanging  the  ears  by  tying  a  part  of  the  husks  works 
well,  but  takes  more  time,  and  also  takes  up  more  room 
than  to  use  the  twine  loop  for  hanging  a  dozen  ears  in  one 
string.  Still  another  method  is  to  drive  ten-penny  finishing 
nails  four  inches  apart  in  a  post,  sticking  the  butt  of  the 
ear  on  the  nail. 

6.     Types  of  Corn 

There  are  altogether  seven  different  types  of  corn. 
These  are:   (1)  pod  corn,  (2)  soft  corn,  (3)  sweet  corn,  (4) 


CORN  CULTURE  21 

pop-corn,  (5)  Kafir  corn,  (6)  flint  corn,  and  (7)  dent 
corn. 

Pod  corn. — Most  of  those  who  will  study  this  book 
have  never  seen  pod  corn  grown.  It  has  a  thin  husk  around 
each  separate  kernel.  This  type  of  corn  is  of  interest  chiefly 
because  it  is  thought  to  be  the  oldest  type,  from  which  all 
other  types  have  developed.  The  chaff  or  scale  at  the  base 
of  the  kernels  of  our  common  varieties  is  probably  a  rem- 
nant of  the  kernel  husk  of  the  old  pod  corn.  Pod  corn  will 
grow  in  almost  any  temperate  region. 

Soft  corn. — Soft  corn,  like  pod  corn,  is  not  grown  as  a 
staple  crop  in  the  United  States.  This  is  the  Mondamin  of 
the  American  Indians,  and  was  favored  by  them  because  it 
was  very  easily  ground.  Its  softness  is  caused  by  the  fact 
that  its  endosperm  is  all  of  soft  white  starch,  wholly  lacking 
the  horny  starch  of  the  other  types.  Little  of  this  type  is 
grown  except  in  the  South. 

Sweet  com. — Sweet  corn  is  widely  grown  for  human 
food.  It  is  used  green  as  "roasting-ears,"  and  is  canned 
while  green  and  kept  in  this  state  for  almost  any  length  of 
time.  Sweet  com  does  not  produce  so  large  a  yield  as 
some  other  kinds,  and  hence  is  not  grown  for  feeding  stock. 
It  is  grown  throughout  the  com  territory. 

Pop-corn. — Pop-corn  is  distinguished  for  the  hardness 
of  its  kernel.  It  is  just  the  opposite  of  soft  corn,  and  has 
an  endosperm  nearly  all  of  hard  horny  starch.  When  the 
kernels  are  heated  and  the  moisture  in  them  expands,  an 
explosion  occurs  which  we  call  popping.  Pop-corn  can  be 
raised  in  all  parts  of  the  corn  region. 

Kafir  com. — Botanically  Kafir  is  not  really  a  member 
of  the  corn  family,  but  belongs  to  the  sorghums.  For 
agricultural  purposes,  however,  Kafir  may  be  considered 
a  type  of  corn.  Its  medium-sized  seeds  grow  in  a  cylin- 
drical or  oblong  head  instead  of  on  an  ear.    Kafir  is  grown 


22  AGRICULTURE 

in  the  semi-arid  regions  of  the  Southwest.  It  is  a  good 
substitute  for  corn  in  the  ration  of  all  farm  animals. 

Flint  corn. — Flint  corn  is  the  prevailing  type  yet 
raised  in  New  England  and  in  New  York.  It  is  to  be  rec- 
ognized by  the  long  slender  ear,  and  by  the  hard  flinty  ker- 
nel, which  contains  a  large  amount  of  horny  starch.  Flint 
corn  does  not  require  so  long  a  season  as  dent  corn,  and 
hence  is  preferred  in  northern  regions  where  there  is  dan- 
ger of  the  crop  being  caught  by  the  frost  before  it  is  ripe. 
As  earlier  varieties  of  dent  corn  are  being  developed,  they 
are  displacing  flint  corn  in  many  regions. 

Dent,  corn. — This  is  the  principal  corn  raised  in  the 
great  corn  producing  regions  of  the  United  States.  In 
fact  it  supplies  the  greater  part  of  the  world's  com  crop. 
It  is  called  deiit  corn  because  the  soft  starch  of  the  crown 
shrinks  slightly  in  ripening,  thus  causing  a  depression  in 
the  top  of  the  kernel.  It  is  the  type  grown  almost  ex- 
clusively for  feeding  stock,  and  all  the  commercial  corn 
products,  such  as  glucose,  starch,  sirup,  etc.,  are  made 
from  it.  Dent  corn  has  two  varieties:  (1)  single  ear,  or 
One  ear  to  the  stalk,  as  grown  in  the  corn  belt;  and  (2) 
prolific,  or  many  ears  to  the  stalk,  as  grown  in  the  South. 

Types  and  varieties. — Each  different  type  of  corn  may 
have  many  varieties.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the 
types  that  are  most  grown  have  the  largest  number  of  vari- 
eties, or  strains.  Varieties  of  com  are  produced  in  three 
different  ways:  (1)  by  selecting  some  exceptional  or  pe- 
culiar ear,  and  using  it  for  seed,  picking  out  for  seed  each 
year  the  ears  most  nearly  like  the  original  parent  ear  until 
the  variety  is  established;  (2)  by  cross  breeding;  and  (3) 
by  selecting  each  year  for  planting  the  best  ears, — the 
earliest  ears,  the  largest  ears,  the  best  shaped  ears,  or  ears 
that  possess  whatever  quality  is  wanted  in  the  new  variety. 
If  this  same  quality  is  selected  year  after  year,  the  variety 


An  illustration  of  the  prolific  corn  common 
in  the  southern  states.  It  will  grow  2  to  8 
ears  of  corn  on  each  stalk.  It  requires  a 
subtropical  climate,  copious  rainfall  and  a 
long  season. 


Types  of  corn.  (1)  pod  corn;  (2)  three  strains  of  flint  corn; 
(3)  two  strains  of  sweet  corn;  (4)  two  strains  of  pop-corn; 
(5)  two  strains  of  dent  corn. 


24  AGRICULTURE 

will  after  a  time  have  a  tendency  to  "breed  true";  that  is, 
all  to  be  like  the  ears  selected  for  seed. 

Selecting  the  best  variety. — Different  varieties  are 
suited  for  different  climates  and  for  different  soils.  It  is 
therefore  important  in  selecting  a  variety  of  corn  to  know 
whether  it  is  adapted  to  the  conditions  under  which  it  is 
to  be  raised. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  How  many  of  the  seven  different  types  of  corn  have 
you  ever  seen  ?  How  many  are  grown  in  your  region  ?  (Be 
sure  to  distinguish  type  from  variety.)  . 

2.  Bring  to  school  a  sample  of  as  many  different  types 
as  you  can  find.  What  three  can  you  easily  secure  if  you 
live  in  the  Middle  West?  What  ones  can  you  secure  if  you 
live  in  New  England  ?    If  you  live  in  Oklahoma  or  Alabama  ? 

3.  Examine  these  different  types  for  the  size  of  the 
ear;  for  the  shape;  for  the  shape  of  kernel;  for  color;  for 
proportion  of  corn  to  cob ;  for  the  parts  of  the  kernel. 

4.  Is  the  corn  raised  on  your  father's  farm  a  true 
variety,  or  is  it  mixed?    If  true,  what  is  the  variety? 

5.  How  many  varieties  of  corn  do  you  know?  Join 
with  your  classmates  in  making  as  large  a  collection  of  sam- 
ples of  different  varieties  as  can  be  found  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. Comparing  these  ears  for  the  different  qualities  by 
which  ears  are  judged,  what  are  the  differences  you  note? 
Which  seems  to  you  the  best  variety?  Does  it  yield  best? 
Does  it  ripen  ?  Does  it  have  good  feeding  and  selling  qual- 
ities ? 

7.    Raising  Seed  in  a  Selection  Bed 

The  first  step  necessary  in  improving  corn  is  to  improve 
the  seed.  Not  only  must  we  make  sure  that  the  corn  se- 
lected for  seed  will  grow,  but  it  must  be  as  nearly  perfect 
in  every  way  as  possible.  For  heredity  works  in  plants  as 
well  as  in  animals.  We  select  the  best  stock  for  breeding ; 
we  should  do  the  same  in  choosing  the  seed  we  plant.  Good, 
strong,  well-formed  ears  will  tend  to  produce  corn  of  the 


CORN  CULTURE 


25. 


same  kind,  while  small,  irregular,  or  weak  ears  will  breed 
the  characteristics  of  their  kind. 

Choosing  the  selection  bed. — So  important  is  the  mat- 
ter of  the  very  best  corn  for  seed,  that  many  farmers  are 
now  using  what  is  called  the  selection  bed  for  the  raising  of 


A  sample  of  coru  showing  good  tip  ends. 

seed.  The  selection  bed  should  be  a  choice  plot  of  ground 
of  from  one  to  three  acres,  depending  on  the  size  of  the 
farm.  This  plot  is  specially  prepared,  planted  with  the 
choicest  seed,  tested  for  growth  and  vitality,  and  is  given 
the  best  of  care. 

The  selection  bed  should  be  by  itself  if  you  want  pure 


26  AGRICULTURE 

seed.  It  may  be  a  part  of  the  general  field,  if  located  at 
the  south  or  southwest  side,  so  that  the  prevailing  summer 
winds  may  carry  the  pollen  to  all  parts  of  the  plot,  and 
even  to  the  remainder  of  the  field.  This  plot  should  never 
be  placed  where  it  will  receive  the  pollen  from  some  neigh- 
boring field  of  different  variety,  of  mixed,  or  poor  grade 
corn. 

Care  at  tasseling  time. — At  tasseling  time  the  selec- 
tion bed  requires  special  attention.  As  already  explained, 
this  is  because  the  tassel,  which  is  the  male  flower  of  the 
corn,  bears  the  pollen  necessary  to  fertilize  the  silk,  which 
is  the  female  flower.  There  is  one  silk  for  each  kernel. 
The  silk  has  to  be  fertilized  by  a  single  grain  of  pollen  fall- 
ing upon  it.  If  pollen  from  a  different  variety  of  corn  fer- 
tilizes the  silks,  the  result  is  a  mixed  breed.  If  the  pollen 
comes  from  weak  or  faulty  stalks,  the  ears  formed  are  im- 
perfect, or  the  stalk  may  remain  barren. 

In  the  selection  bed,  as  in  the  remainder  of  the  field, 
there  will  be  found  weak  stalks,  barren  stalks  and  suckers, 
all  of  which  may  bear  tassels,  and  hence  produce  pollen. 
But  the  pollen  from  these  faulty  stalks  should  not  be  allowed 
to  fertilize  the  ear-bearing  stalks.  To  prevent  this,  it  is 
necessary  to  go  into  the  selection  bed  when  the  first  tassels 
begin  to  appear,  and  cut  out  all  the  faulty  stalks,  so  that 
their  pollen  may  do  no  damage.  This  is  a  very  important 
matter  in  raising  good  seed,  and  should  never  be  neg- 
lected. Weak  parentage  in  corn,  as  in  stock,  should  be  pre- 
vented. 

Taking  seed  from  selection  bed. — The  same  care 
should  be  observed  in  selecting  seed  from  the  selection  bed 
as  from  the  general  field.  Each  year  the  choicest  and  strong- 
est ears  should  be  used  in  planting  the  selection  bed.  In 
this  way,  almost  any  variety  cf  corn  can  be  improved,  and 
much  larger  and  better  yields  obtained. 


CORN  CULTURE  27 

Home-grown  seed  the  best. — As  a  rule,  home-grown 
seed  is  best,  provided  it  is  carefully  selected,  and  kept 
improving  from  year  to  year.  It  takes  corn  shipped  in  from 
another  region  several  years  to  adapt  itself  to  the  new  condi- 
tions so  that  it  will  do  as  well  as  in  its  home  place.  Corn 
does  not  "run  out,"  as  many  farmers  believe,  but  is  run  out 
by  farmers  who  are  careless  in  the  selection  of  seed. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Has  your  father  ever  used  the  selection  bed,  or  "seed 
patch"  for  the  raising  of  his  seed  corn?  How  many  of  the 
farmers  in  your  neighborhood  so  use  it  ? 

2.  Good  seed  corn  from  a  favorite  variety  sells  at  from 
two  dollars  to  as  much  as  ten  dollars  a  bushel.  Sup- 
pose that  you  should  plant  a  selection  bed  of  two  acres, 
and  secure  sixty  bushels  per  acre,  one-third  of  which  is  suit- 
able for  seed.  If  cribbed  corn  is  worth  fifty  cents  a  bushel, 
and  seed  corn  three  dollars,  what  is  the  return  from  the 
two  acres?  How  much  greater  is  the  return  than  if  the 
corn  had  all  been  sold  for  feed?  All  corn  club  boys  and 
ambitious  farmers  should  raise  seed  corn  of  the  improved 
strains. 

3.  Talk  with  your  father  about  planting  a  seed  club 
acre  next  year,  and  allowing  you  to  manage  it,  select  the 
seed,  and  care  for  the  patch  at  tasseling  time.  About  how 
many  ears  would  be  required  to  plant  a  three-acre  bed  ?  Have 
you  satisfactory  seed  from  which  to  select  for  the  bed,  or 
would  you  have  to  secure  seed  from  a  neighbor?  What 
variety  does  your  father  favor  ?  What  are  the  other  varieties 
that  might  be  considered  ? 

8.     Corn  Judging  with  Score-Card 

What  qualities,  together,  make  a  good  ear  of  corn  ?  We 
are  now  ready  for  a  somewhat  more  careful  study  of  the 
ear  to  answer  this  question.  For  this  purpose  we  shall 
judge  a  sample  of  ten  ears  by  the  use  of  the  score-card. 
The  score-card  requires  that  we  grade  the  ear  on  each  of 


A  three-stalk  hill  with  six  good  ears  of  Silver  King,  on  an  Iowa 
farm. 


Boys  iiiul  Kirls  l)rin«iiig  t-oni  to  .schuul  lor  judging  and  testing 
in  a  Cook  County  rural  school. 


CORN  CULTURE        >  29 

its  different  qualities,  and  then  sum  these  markings  all 
together  for  the  final  "standing"  or  value  of  the  ear. 

This  method  of  judging  corn  is  much  more  accurate 
and  scientific  than  estimating  the  value  of  an  ear  in  an  off- 
hand way.  It  is  the  method  used  by  most  of  the  corn 
experts. 

AH  ears  to  be  judged  as  if  for  seed. — No  matter  for 
what  purpose  corn  is  to  be  used,  it  is  always  best  to  judge 
the  ears  as  if  they  were  intended  for  seed.  This  is  because 
the  ear  that  is  best  for  seed  is  also  best  for  every  other  pur- 
pose. The  ear  which  would  show  best  in  an  agricultural 
exhibit,  the  one  which  would  be  best  for  yield,  or  feeding, 
or  any  other  use  is  the  one  which  grades  highest  as  a  seed 
ear. 

Preparing  the  samples  for  judging. — ^To  supply  corn 
for  judging  with  the  score-card,  each  pupil  will  bring  from 
home  the  best  ten  ears  of  corn  he  can  find  either  in  the 
field  or  the  crib.  There  should  be  altogether  as  many  as  from 
five  to  ten  sets  of  ten  ears  each.  Each  ear  must  be  labeled 
or  numbered  so  as  to  show  ( 1 )  what  set  it  belongs  to,  and 
(2)  its  number  in  the  set  For  this  purpose  prepare  pieces 
of  tough  cardboard  one-half  inch  square.  For  the  first  set 
of  ten,  label  the  ears  Al,  A2,  A3  and  so  on.  For  the  next 
set,  label  the  ears  Bl,  B2,  B3,  etc.  Do  this  way  for  each 
of  the  different  sets,  so  that  any  ear  can  be  placed  in  the 
set  where  it  belongs.  The  labels  can  be  tied  to  the  ears, 
or  can  be  attached  to  the  butts  by  pushing  a  small  nail 
through  the  card  and  into  the  butt  of  the  ear.  The  sets 
can  now  be  placed  together  on  a  table  without  danger  of  get- 
ting them  mixed. 

The  four  qualities  on  which  the  ear  is  judged. — The 
score-card  is  arranged  to  judge  the  corn  on  four  different 
qualities,  each  quality,  if  perfect,  being  counted  as  twenty- 


30  AGRICULTURE 

five  points,  one  hundred  points  therefore  being  a  perfect 
score. 

The  first  great  question  about  an  ear  is:  Will  it  yield 
well ;  has  it  a  good  constitution,  so  that  it  will  do  well  even 
under  unfavorable  conditions  ?  The  second  question  is :  Will 
it  ripen,  and  not  get  caught  by  the  frost  and  so  produce  a 
crop  of  soft  corn  ?  The  third  question  is :  Will  it  grow,  is  it 
of  good  vitality,  so  that  it  will  give  a  good  stand,  and  strong 
plants  ?  The  fourth  question  is :  Does  it  show  improvement; 
that  is,  is  it  a  clear  type  that  will  breed  true,  and  not  show 
mixed  breeds  ? 

Let  us  study  these  four  points  a  little  more  in  detail,  and 
then  we  shall  be  ready  to  score  our  samples  according  to 
the  points  of  the  score-card.  (Sample  score-cards  should 
be  secured  for  the  class  from  the  state  agricultural  college 
or  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

Will  the  ear  yield? — The  chief  factors  in  the  yield  are 
the  size  of  ear,  depth  of  kernel,  filling  at  tip  and  butt,  and 
reasonably  close  set  rows.  The  size  of  the  ear  must  be 
adapted  to  the  locality.  Much  larger  ears  can  be  raised  in 
Missouri,  for  example,  than  in  Minnesota,  because  of  the 
difference  in  length  of  season. 

Will  the  ear  ripen? — In  general,  ears  that  have  a  large 
circumference  are  slower  in  ripening  than  slender  ears. 
Long  kernels  also  indicate  late  maturity,  as  do  large,  coarse, 
pithy  cobs.  Such  characteristics  are  therefore  not  adapted 
to  regions  having  short  seasons. 

Will  the  ear  grow? — In  an  ear  of  good  vitality  the 
grain  is  of  a  bright  and  cheerful  appearance,  and  the  germ 
and  embryo  of  clear  whitish  color,  somewhat  shiny  from 
the  oil  it  contains.  And  discoloring  or  signs  of  molding 
indicate  lack  of  vitality. 

Does  the  com  show  improvement? — In  corn  that  is 
improving  instead  of  runnings  out.  the  color  is  clear  and 


CORN  CULTURE  31 

free  from  mixture,  true  to  the  variety  represented.  Both 
ears  and  kernels  should  be  constant  in  shape,  and  conform 
to  the  variety  type. 

How  to  judge  with  the  score-card. — Place  your  ten 
ear  samples  on  the  table  with  the  butts  toward  you.  Begin 
with  ear  number  1,  and  study  each  ear  with  great  care,  point 
by  point,  taking  time  to  decide  each  grade  mark.  Put 
these  down  in  the  pfoper  place  on  the  score-card.  Do  not 
be  afraid  to  mark  off  for  defects.  It  takes  a  good  ear  to 
score  ninety  points  when  carefully  graded. 

Finally,  add  together  the  marks  for  each  ear  given 
under  each  of  the  four  grade  points,  and  place  the  sum  in 
the  proper  place  in  the  summary  on  the  score-card.  Add 
these  results  for  each  ear.  This  will  give  you  the  final 
score  for  each  ear  of  the  set. 

Comparing  scores. — After  thus  completing  your  own 
sample  of  ten  ears,  exchange  with  one  of  your  classmates, 
and  score  his  sample,  while  he  at  the  same  time  scores 
yours.  Do  this  as  carefully  as  the  first  set,  without  refer- 
ring to  the  grading  given  by  the  other  person.  When  both 
havd  finished,  compare  the  scores,  and  discuss  the  differ- 
ences in  the  markings.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  the 
scoring  will  agree  in  all  particulars,  but  where  there  are 
wide  differences,  the  reasons  for  each  score  given  should 
be  carefully  gone  over  to  correct  any  false  judgment. 

9.     Testing  the  Seed  Corn 

No  seed  corn  should  ever  be  planted  that  has  not  been 
tested  ear  by  ear  to  see  whether  it  will  germinate,  and  pro- 
duce a  strong  growth.  For,  even  if  the  seed  is  carefully 
selected  and  cared  for,  there  are  always  some  ears  that  will 
fail  to  grow,  or  else  produce  plants  so  weak  as  to  be  bar- 
ren or  raise  but  worthless  nubbins. 

4 


The  small  ear  grows  in  extreme  northern  portion  of  Minne- 
sota and  the  larger  ear  in  central  and  southern  Minnesota. 
The  two  illustrate  the  effect  of  climate  and  the  influence  length 
of  season  has  on  corn  production. 


A  good  ear  and  a  |)oor  ear  of  com. 


CORN  CULTURE  33 

Since  it  takes  but  a  dozen  or  fifteen  ears  to  plant  an 
acre,  and  since  an  acre  of  average  ground  should  yield  at 
least  sixty  bushels,  each  ear  of  seed  represents  from  four 
to  five  bushels  of  crop.  The  farmer's  time  can  be  spent 
in  no  more  profitable  way  than  in  making  sure  that  every 
ear  of  seed  corn  planted  is  sure  to  grow.  The  testing 
should  be  done  late  in  the  winter,  or  in  the  early  spring 
before  the  farm  work  opens. 

Preparing  for  testing. — ^Testing  the  seed  corn  costs 
practically  nothing  but  a  little  time,  care  and  attention. 
For,  while  there  are  several  excellent  seed-corn  testers  on 
the  market,  none  is  superior  to  one  that  can  easily  be 
made  at  home. 

,  The  sawdust  germination  box  may  be  prepared  as  fol- 
lows :  Construct  a  box  thirty  inches  square  and  four  inches 
deep.  Put  some  sawdust  in  a  bag  and  soak  it  in  warm 
water  until  it  is  well  saturated.  Fill  the  box  half  full  of 
the  sawdust,  packing  it  well.  Take  a  piece  of  good  white 
cloth  and  rule  it  off  in  two-and-one-half-inch  squares,  mak- 
ing one  hundred  squares  in  all,  and  numbering  them  from 
one  to  one  hundred.  Place  the  cloth  on  the  sawdust  so 
that  there  will  be  a  margin  of  at  least  two  inches  between 
the  sides  of  the  box  and  the  squares.  Tack  cloth  to  the 
edges  of  the  box. 

Now  take  one  hundred  ears  of  the  corn  to  be  tested  and 
lay  them  out  in  a  row  on  a  table  or  planks.  Drive  a  nail  into 
the  table  every  tenth  ear,  separating  the  entire  lot  into 
ten  groups  of  ten  ears  each.  Number  the  ears  from  one  to 
one  hundred  to  correspond  with  the  squares  in  the  tester. 
This  may  be  done  by  numbering  the  places  on  the  edge  of 
the  table  if  care  is  taken  not  to  change  places  with  the  ears. 

Making  the  test. — Remove  one  kernel  from  near  the 
butt,  one  from  near  the  middle,  and  one  from  near  the  tip 
of  the  ear ;  turn  the  ear  over  and  remove  three  kernels  from 


34  AGRICULTURE 

corresponding  positions  on  the  other  side  of  the  ear.  These 
six  kernels  are  to  be  placed,  germ  side  up  and  tips  all  toward 
one  side  of  the  box,  in  the  squares  over  the  sawdust,  those 
from  ear  No.  1  in  square  No.  1,  and  so  on,  until  six  ker- 
nels have  been  taken  from  each  of  the  one  hundred  ears  and 
placed  in  the  tester. 

After  the  kernels  are  all  in  position,  thus  filling  the  one 
hundred  squares,  lay  a  piece  of  cloth  over  them,  taking  care 
not  to  disturb  their  positions.  Sprinkle  this  cloth  well  with 
warm  water.  Now  lay  over  this  another  cloth  about  twice 
the  size  of  the  box.  Fill  in  on  top  about  two  inches  of 
damp  sawdust,  packing  it  down  very  firmly.  Then  fold  the 
edges  of  the  cloth  over  the  sawdust,  covering  it  so  that 
it  will  not  dry  out. 

The  germination  box  is  now  ready  to  set  away  for  the 
kernels  to  sprout.  The  box  should  be  kept  in  a  fairly  warm 
place,  and  must  not  be  allowed  to  freeze.  The  kernels 
should  be  allowed  from  six  to  eight  days  for  sprouting, 
depending  on  the  temperature.  It  is  not  enough  that  the 
germination  has  merely  started ;  it  must  be  allowed  to  go 
on  for  some  days  to  show  whether  the  new  plant  has  good 
vitality. 

The  number  of  germination  boxes  required  will  depend 
on  the  amount  of  seed  to  be  tested.  Several  can  be  used 
at  the  same  time,  stacking  one  on  top  of  another  as  they 
are  filled.  The  ears  must,  of  course,  remain  in  their  orig- 
inal positions  on  the  tables  until  the  results  of  the  test  are 
determined. 

Reading  the  test. — At  the  end  of  the  germination 
period  the  cover  must  be  removed  without  disturbing  the 
kernels.  This  can  be  done  by  carefully  rolling  up  the  top 
pad  of  sawdust  in  its  cloth.  The  sprouts  will  be  some 
two  inches  long,  and  may  in  some  cases  have  grown  through 
the  first  cloth  covering. 


Scliool  testing  seed  corn  in  sawdust  germination  boxes. 


Putting  the  rag  dolls  into  a  bucket,  which  is  then  wrapped  in 
old  newspapers  and  kept  in  a  safe  place  until  the  kernels  of 
corn  have  sprouted. 


36  AGRICULTURE 

It  is  easy  now  to  tell  which  are  the  good  and  which 
are  the  bad  seed  ears.  An  ear  should  be  rejected  if  even 
one  of  the  six  kernels  failed  to  sprout.  For  a  loss  of  one 
out  of  six  means  sixteen  and  two-thirds  per  cent,  of  the 
crop  gone  if  all  ears  were  of  this  kind. 

Ears  whose  six  kernels  may  all  sprout,  but  which  start 
weakly,  should  also  be  thrown  out.  For  it  is  these  weak 
plants  that  later  turn  out  to  be  barren,  or  prove  an  easy 
prey  to  dry  weather  or  some  insect  enemy.  If  only  those 
ears  are  planted  whose  six  kernels  all  produce  strong  vig- 
orous sprouts  in  the  germination  box,  the  greatest  obstacle 
in  the  way  of  a  perfect  stand  will  have  been  removed. 

The  "rag-doU"  tester. — A  very  simple  and  effective 
tester  is  made  of  a  s#ip  of  cloth  and  is  called  the  "rag  doll." 
To  make  this  form  of  tester,  use  nine-inch  strips  of  muslin 
five  feet  long.  Draw  a  pencil  line  lengthwise  down  the 
middle  of  the  strip,  and  draw  cross  lines  every  three  inches, 
leaving  about  fifteen  inches  at  each  end  of  the  strip  with  no 
lines.  Number  the  spaces.  Wet  the  cloth  thoroughly,,  and 
place  the  kernels  in  the  spaces  as  in  the  sawdust  tester. 
Roll  the  strip  up  from  either  end,  and  tie  a  string  around 
the  roll.  Now  stand  the  roll,  with  the  tips  of  the  kernels 
down,  in  a  bucket  of  tepid  water  for  several  hours.  Place 
the  roll  in  a  box  or  under  an  inverted  bucket  so  that  the 
moisture  will  not  dry  out.  Of  course  as  many  of  these 
rolls  may  be  used  as  are  required  for  the  amount  of  corn 
to  be  tested. 

Commercial  testers. — Several  forms  of  commercial 
testers  are  now  available,  and  most  of  them  are  fairly  satis- 
factory. There  is  little  need,  however,  for  buying  testers 
when  they  can  be  so  easily  made  at  home,  and  when  the 
home-made  testers  are  so  simple  and  effective. 


Placing  the  kernels  In  the  "rag-doll"  tester. 


38  AGRICULTURE 

Topics  for  Investigation 

Let  the  class  join  in  making  a  germination  box  for  the 
school  as  described  in  the  text.  Sawdust  may  be  obtained 
from  wood-piles,  icehouses,  or  meat  markets. 

1.  Each  pupil  will  bring  to  school  enough  ears  of  seed 
corn  so  that  the  class  will  have  one  hundred  ears  for  testing. 
^  2.  Arrange  the  ears  as  directed,  numbering  th6m  from 
one  to  one  hundred.  Take  six  kernels  from  each  ear  and 
place  them  in  the  box.  Make  arrangements  to  keep  the  box 
reasonably  warm.  The  "rag-doll"  tester  may  be  used  by 
some  of  the  class.  Compare  results  from  the  two  forms  of 
tester. 

3.  At  the  end  of  a  week  uncover  the  box  and  read  the 
test.  How  many  ears  had  one  kernel  that  did  not  grow? 
Two  kernels?  Three  kernels?  Four  kernels?  Five  ker- 
nels?    Six  kernels? 

4.  What  would  have  been  the  percentage  of  stand  if 
all  the  ears  had  been  planted,  and  the  germination  in  the 
field  been  equal  to  that  of  the  box?  It  is  estimated  that  to 
hire  the  labor  for  testing  will  cost  about  sixteen  cents  an 
acre.  Would  this  pay?  Compare  this  report  with  your 
record  from  counting  stand  on  page  six. 

5.  How  many  ears  will  grow,  but  produce  plants  so 
weak  that  they  will  probably  be  barren  or  produce  nubbins  ? 
How  many  of  the  one  hundred  ears  should  be  discarded  as 
seed? 

6.  Tell  your  father  about  this  test,  and  join  with  hira 
in  testing  the  home  seed  for  the  next  crop. 

10.    Preparing  Seed  Corn  for  the  Planter 

After  testing  the  seed,  the  next  step  is  to  grade  it  for 
the  planter.  This  means  to  divide  the  seed  corn  into  lots 
according  to  the  size  of  the  kernels.  It  is  impossible  to 
secure  a  regular  drop  with  the  planter  unless  the  kernels 
are  of  fairly  uniform  size.  And  no  matter  how  good  the 
seed,  if  one  hill  receives  two  kernels  and  the  next  four  or 
five,  the  stand  will  be  irregular  and  the  crop  reduced. 


CORN  CULTURE  39 

Grading  seed  corn. — The  grading  of  seed  corn  can  be 
done  in  the  winter  when  general  farm  work  is  slack.  It 
may  well  follow  immediately  after  the  testing,  or  even  be 
carried  on  in  connection  with  it. 

The  first  step  in  grading  is  to  shell  of?  the  butts  and 
tips  by  hand.     The  end  kernels  are  always  more  or  less 


The  blotter  seed  tester.    Au  excelleut  type  for  school  use. 

irregular,  and  dififer  in  size  from  the  remainder  of  the  ear. 
They  should  never  be  planted. 

The  ears  are  then  to  be  shelled,  one  at  a  time,  and  the 
kernels  inspected  to  determine  whether  they  are  large  or 
small;  if  the  variation  is  great,  it  will  be  well  to  have  also 
a  medium  grade.  As  each  ear  is  shelled,  the  seed  is  put 
into  its  proper  grade ;  when  the  shelling  is  completed,  the 
supply  of  seed  will  therefore  be  in  either  two  or  three  lots, 
based  on  the  size  of  the  kernels.    All  ears  with  exceptionally 


40 


AGRICULTURE 


Jarge  or  exceptionally  small  kernels  should  be  rejected,  as 
they  will  fit  neither  grade. 

Hand  picking  the  seed. — But  even  after  the  most  care- 
ful grading  by  ears,  there  will  still  be  a  surprisingly  large 
number  of  irregular,  broken,   diseased,  or  imperfect  ker- 


Embryo; 
Stem 

BinbryO)/ 


Experiments  sliowlnj?  results  of  plautiug  coru   at  different 
depths.    Diagram  of  kernel  of  corn. 

nels.  To  remove  these,  the  corn  should  be  spread  out  on  a 
table,  a  few  handfuls  at  a  time,  and  all  the  imperfect  ker- 
nels thrown  out.  Running  the  seed  through  a  "sorter" 
saves  time  in  the  hand  picking.  The  seed-corn  sorter  con- 
sists of  a  sieve  with  large  oblong  meshes. 

Caring  for  the  shelled  seed. — After  the  seed  has  been 
tested  and  graded  it  must  be  given  good  care  to  prevent 


CORN  CULTURE  41 

it  from  becoming  damp  and  molding,  or  getting  too  dry 
as  from  artificial  heat.  It  should  be  placed  in  sacks  hold- 
ing not  more  than  half  a  bushel  each,  and  hung  in  a  pro- 
tected place,  such  as  an  attic.  The  sacks  should  be  labeled 
to  show  the  grade  that  each  contains. 

Testing  the  planter. — Before  planting  time,  the 
planter  should  be  carefully  tested  for  each  grade  of  seed, 
and  the  right  size  of  plates  determined.  This  is  done  by 
placing  a  quantity  of  each  grade  of  seed  in  the  planter 
boxes  in  succession,  throwing  the  drop  by  hand,  and  keep- 
ing accurate  count  of  the  number  of  kernels  dropped  eacH 
time  for  at  least  a  hundred  hills. 

In  well  graded  seed  it  should  be  possible  to  secure  a 
drop  of  three  kernels  more  than  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the 
time.  Whether  whatever  variation  there  is  should  be  chiefly 
in  the  direction  of  two,  or  of  four,  kernels  will  depend  on 
the  richness  of  the  soil.  If  the  seed  has  been  carefully 
tested,  the  effort  should  be  to  plant  three  kernels  to  the 
hill  in  just  as  many  cases  as  possible. 

Topics  for  Investigation  ■ ; 

Let  each  member  of  the  class  bring  to  school  a  number 
of  ears  of  corn  suitable  for  seed  so  that  the  class  will 
together  have  a  lot  of  at  least  fifty  ears. 

1.  Shell  off  the  butts  and  tips,  comparing  the  size  of 
the  kernels.  Will  the  shape  of  the  kernel  have  anything  to 
do  with  the  number  the  planter  will  drop  to  the  hill  ? 

2.  Shell  all  the  ears,  one  at  a  time,  dividing  the  kernels 
into  three  lots  according  to  size.  How  many  ears  go  into 
each  grade?  Are  there  any  ears  with  kernels  too  large  or 
too  small  for  either  grade? 

3.  Now  let  each  pupil  take  a  pint  of  shelled  corn  from 
each  of  the  three  grades  and  hand  pick  it.  How  many 
kernels  are  very  small,  irregular,  or  chaffy?  How  many 
broken?  How  many  moldy  or  black  at  the  tip?  How 
many  have  you  rejected  from  each  lot?     Count  the  good 


Com  roots  at  time  for  lust  plowiug. 
feet  high  and  stand  3%  ft^et  upurt. 
veuing  space  is  filled  with  roots. 


The  stalks  are  about  5 
Note  liow  all  tlie  inter- 


CORN  CULTURE  43 

kernels   in    each    lot   and   figure   the   percentage    rejected 
through  hand  picking. 

4.  If  there  is  a  corn  planter  near  at  hand,  draw  it  to 
the  school  and  test  it  for  the  drop  on  each  of  the  different 
grades  of  seed,  keeping  count  for  at  least  one  hundred  hills 
on  each  side  of  the  planter.  What  percentage  of  the  time 
are  you  able  to  secure  a  drop  of  three  kernels  ? 

5.  Mix  together  a  few  pints  of  the  three  grades  in  the 
proportion  they  bear  in  the  whole  amount  shelled.  Test 
the  planter  with  this  mixture,  keeping  track  of  the  drop  for 
one  hundred  hills  on  each  side  of  the  planter.  What  do  you 
conclude  as  to  the  wisdom  of  grading  seed  corn  for  the 
planter  ? 

11.     The  Seed  Bed  and  Planting 

The  roots  of  growing  corn  require,  besides  the  nutrients 
of  the  soil,  heat,  air  and  moisture.  Let  any  of  these  fall 
short,  and  the  crop  is  injured.  Loose  soil  absorbs  both 
moisture  and  air  better  than  hard  soil.  Loose  soil  also  holds 
its  moisture  better  than  hard  soil,  since  it  does  not  favor 
such  rapid  evaporation.  And,  since  evaporation  is  always 
accompanied  by  a  loss  of  heat,  hard  soil  loses  heat  more 
rapidly  at  night  or  during  cold  spells.  The  supply  of 
heat,  air  and  moisture  therefore  depends  on  having  the 
soil  loose  and  finely  pulverized. 

How  corn  roots  grow. — Corn  roots  grow  by  pushing 
the  root  tip  out  through  the  soil,  drawing  food  from  the 
tiny  particles  of  earth,  and  drinking  the  film  of  water  that 
surrounds  each  particle  of  soil.  If  the  ground  is  hard  or 
soggy,  the  root  tips  can  not  easily  push  through  it,  nor 
can  they  get  enough  air.  If  it  is  coarse  and  full  of  clods, 
the  roots  can  not  reach  across  the  open  places  between  the 
clods.  In  soil  of  this  character  roots  also  suffer  from  lack 
of  moisture,  for  they  must  be  packed  about  by  fine  par- 
ticles in  order  to  drink  in  the  water.  Even  if  the  soil  be 
so  wet  as  to  have  water  standing  around  the  roots,  they 


44  AGRICULTURE 

tan  not  use  water  in  this  form.  Indeed,  water  standing 
around  the  roots  will  injure  them  by  keeping  them  too 
cold,  and  by  shutting  the  air  from  them.  Not  until  water 
is  absorbed  by  millions  of  minute  particles  of  fine  soil  is  it 
ready  for  plant  roots  to  drink. 

Preparing  the  seed  bed. — Ground  is  plowed  in  order 
to  loosen  it.  Fall  plowing  is  usually  best  for  corn.  Fall 
plowed  ground  presents  a  rough  surface  which  holds  the 
snow  better,  and  it  also  takes  in  and  retains  a  larger  supply 
of  moisture.  Fall  plowing  also  has  plenty  of  time  to  settle, 
so  that  it  is  in  better  condition  for  the  crop  than  spring 
plowing,  and  allows  earlier  planting.  Spring  plowed 
ground,  not  having  much  time  to  settle,  dries  out  more 
easily  than  ground  plowed  in  the  fall.  Especially  should 
sod  land  be  plowed  in  the  fall,  so  that  the  sod  may  have 
a  chance  to  rot  and  settle  down  on  the  subsoil.  There 
is  also  less  danger  from  cutworms  in  fall  plowed,  sod  land. 
Stubble  ground  should  usually  be  plowed  early,  and  sod 
late  in  the  fall. 

Ground  should  not  be  plowed  while  it  is  wet,  for  most 
soils,  if  turned  while  wet,  have  a  tendency  to  bake  and  form 
into  clods  that  are  hard  to  pulverize.  Fall  plowed  ground 
should  not  be  harrowed  until  spring,  but  should  be  disked 
or  harrowed  as  soon  as  oats  seeding  is  done.  This  will  kill 
young  weeds,  and  save  the  moisture  from  drying  out. 
Spring  plowing  should  usually  be  harrowed  within  a  few 
hours  after  it  is  turned,  for  it  is  then  much  more  easily 
pulverized  than  after  it  has  dried.  In  very  fine  and  mellow 
soil  this  may  not  be  necessary,  but  many  farmers  harrow 
what  they  have  plowed  at  the  close  of  each  half-day. 

Spring  plowing  should  be  disked  and  harrowed  enough 
to  press  the  loosened  soil  down  on  the  furrow  bottom,  so 
that  it  will  make  goo<l  connection  with  the  subsoil.  This 
will  do  much  to  prevent  drying  out.     In  fact,  it  is  impos- 


gjjfjgg^gMSaj«ajpiigS{j^»Wia^^ 


A  well  preparetl  seed  bed. 


A  poorly  prepared  seed  bed. 


46  AGRICULTURE 

sible  to  work  spring  plowing  too  much  in  this  way.  Much 
harrowing  packs  the  soil  thoroughly,  makes  a  loose  bed  for 
the  seed,  and  provides  a  fine  mulch  to  prevent  loss  of 
moisture  through  evaporation.  Thorough  disking  or  har- 
rowing of  fall  plowing  is  necessary  to  loosen  the  soil  and 
prepare  the  bed  for  the  seed. 

Killing  the  weeds. — It  is  well  to  harrow  just  before 
planting,  as  this  kills  the  sprouting  weeds,  and  allows  the 
com  to  get  started  ahead  of  them.  By  far  the  easiest  time 
to  kill  weeds  is  when  they  are  just  starting,  and  a  few 
harrowings  early  in  the  season  will  save  much  trouble  with 
weeds  later  on.  From  two  to  four  harrowings,  or  their 
equivalent  in  disking,  will  usually  pay  on  average  fields. 

Time  for  planting. — Corn  should  be  planted  as  early 
in  the  spring  as  the  ground  can  be  made  ready  and  the 
soil  is  warm  enough.  The  average  date  of  planting  varies 
from  the  eleventh  of  March  in  Florida  to  the  twenty-sixth  of 
May  in  Maine.  The  first  two  weeks  of  May  are  the  corn- 
planting  time  in  the  states  of  the  great  middle  region  of 
the  United  States.  The  average  air  temperature  at  which 
corn  is  planted  is  about  fifty-five  degrees.  Jhe  Indians  had 
a  rule  that  corn  should  be  planted  when  the  leaves  of  the 
maples  were  as  large  as  squirrels'  ears. 

Depth  of  planting. — A  mistake  is  often  made  in  plant- 
ing corn  too  deep.  Some  say  that  by  planting  deep  they 
give  the  roots  a  deep  setting.  This,  however,  is  not  the 
case.  For,  no  matter  how  deep  the  seed  is  planted,  the 
roots  adapt  themselves  to  conditions.  If  the  planting  is 
too  deep,  the  permanent  roots  finally  start  out  nearer  the 
surface,  and  time  has  been  lost  and  energy  wasted  in  com- 
pelling the  plant  to  readjust  itself. 

Corn  should  usually  not  be  planted  more  than  one  and 
a  half  inches  deep,  and  frequently  not  more  than  an  inch. 
Especially  in  cold  weather  or  in  wet  soils,  should  the  plant- 


CORN  CULTURE  47 

ing  be  shallow.  Careful  experiments  have  been  made  by 
the  agricultural  colleges  of  many  states  as  to  the  best  depth 
for  planting  corn,  and  they  have  found  that  almost  uni- 
versally the  shallow  planting  is  best.  The  only  exception  is 
for  a  very  dry  soil,  or  a  dry  season. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Have  you  seen  corn  planted  in  a  seed  bed  that  was 
hard  and  full  of  clods  ?  Did  the  corn  do  well  ?  Have  you 
seen  corn  with  water  standing  about  the  roots?  How  did 
the  corn  look?    What  caused  this  appearance? 

2.  What  percentage  of  corn  land  in  your  neighborhood 
is  plowed  in  the  fall  ?  Why  is  not  more  of  it  plowed  in  the 
fall  ?  Ask  your  father  about  this.  Which  is  the  busier 
season,  fall  or  spring?  In  which  season  is  it  necessary 
that  the  work  be  done  at  just  such  a  time? 

3.  Have  you  seen  ground  plowed  when  it  was  wet? 
Did  it  bake  in  clods?  Do  the  farmers  you  know  harrow 
their  spring  plowing  the  day  it  is  plowed?  Have  you  seen 
weeds  get  a  good  start  ahead  of  the  corn?  How  can  this 
be  prevented? 

4.  Have  you  seen  spring  plowing  planted  when  the 
soil  was  so  loose  that  the  planter  wheels  settled  several 
inches  in  the  ground?  What  is  the  danger  in  planting  a 
seed  bed  in  this  condition?  What  should  be  done  to  it? 
Suppose  spring  plowing  has  been  rained  on  until  it  is  very 
hard.  What  is  the  best  way  to  prepare  a  seed  bed  for 
planting  ? 

5.  What  is  the  earliest  date  of  planting  in  your  vicin- 
ity? The  average  date?  The  latest  safe  date  for  common 
varieties  of  corn? 

6.  Make  the  following  test  to  discover  the  best  depth 
for  planting  corn :  Put  one  inch  of  dirt  in  the  bottom  of  a 
quart  glass  jar.  On  this,  near  the  side,  plant  a  kernel  of 
corn,  and  cover  it  with  an  inch  of  dirt.  On  this  layer  plant 
another  kernel,  and  so  on  until  the  lower  kernel  is  covered 
with  six  inches  of  dirt,  and  the  top  with  one  inch.  Place  the 
kernels  so  that  one  will  not  be  directly  above  another.  Let 
the  seeds  sprout,  and  watch  the  growth  for  ten  days.    From 

5 


48  AGRICULTURE 

this  experiment  what  do  you  conclude  is  the  best  depth? 
Ask  your  father  how  deep  he  plants  his  corn. 

12.     Cultivating  the  Corn 

Why  corn  needs  to  be  cultivated. — Corn  is  to  be  cul- 
tivated after  planting  for  three  main  purposes:  (1)  to  kill 
the  weeds,  (2)  to  admit  air  to  the  roots,  and  (3)  to  pre- 
serve the  moisture  of  the  soil. 

From  the  time  germination  begins  the  growth  of  the 
plant  must  be  unchecked  if  a  full  crop  is  to  be  secured. 
When  corn  has  become  yellow  and  spindling  from  being 
choked  by  weeds,  or  from  the  baking  of  uncultivated  soil 
around  it,  it  is  permanently  injured  and  will  never  fully 
recover.  Only  the  rich  green  color  and  sturdy  stock  of  the 
rapidly  growing  plant  give  promise  of  a  full  yield. 

When  to  begin  cultivation.^Cultivation  should  begin 
early.  Under  average  conditions,  two  harrowings  should 
be  given  before  the  corn  comes  up.  This  will  keep  the  soil 
from  baking,  and  keep  the  weeds  down  until  the  plants  are 
large  enough  to  cultivate.  The  time  to  kill  weeds  is  just  as 
they  are  starting.  Let  them  once  get  well  rooted,  and  they 
are  hard  to  keep  down.  The  spring  tooth  weeder  is  some- 
times used  instead  of  the  harrow  for  early  cultivation.  It 
is  valuable  where  there  are  many  stones  or  ruts  in  the 
field. 

The  shovel  or  disk  cultivator  should  be  started  as  soon 
as  the  corn  is  well  up,  so  that  the  rows  can  be  easily  fol- 
lowed. Even  if  the  weeds  do  not  seem  to  be  starting,  they 
are  surely  taking  root.  Cultivation  will  also  break  up  the 
crusted  soil,  and  admit  air  to  the  growing  roots.  And  this 
must  be  done  or  their  growth  will  be  checked. 

Methods  of  cultivation. — Four  or  five  cultivations  are 
usually  enough  after  the  corn  comes  up,  though  this  must 
depend  on  the  character  of  the  soil,  the  weeds  and   the 


CORN  CULTURE  49 

amount  of  moisture.  The  present  tendency  is  toward  shal- 
low cultivation,  though  this  also  must  depend  on  whether 
the  soil  seems  to  pack  heavily  and  become  hard  under- 
neath. If  it  does,  the  first  should  be  of  some  depth.  The 
important  thing  is  not  to  break  or  injure  the  growing  roots. 
For  a  broken  root  always  means  loss  of  vitality  and  food 
to  the  plant. 

From  thirty  or  sixty  days  after  planting,  the  roots  have 
often  spread  so  far  that  they  meet  between  the  rows,  thus 
occupying  all  the  ground.  Especially  is  this  true  if  the 
season  has  up  to  this  time  been  rather  wet.  For  in  wet  and 
loose  soils  the  roots  spread  out  near  the  surface,  while  in 
dry  soil  they  spread  less  and  run  deeper  into  the  ground. 

It  is  evident  that  deep  cultivation  after  the  roots  are 
well  spread  is  injurious.  The  old  method  of  setting  the 
shovels  deep  and  "hilling  up"  the  corn  the  last  time  through 
is  no  longer  followed  in  scientific  farming.  The  culti- 
vations should  be  shallow.  Cultivation  may  continue  with 
advantage  up  to  the  time  the  corn  is  tasseling  if  care  is 
taken  not  to  break  the  roots.  In  dry  seasons  this  late  cul- 
tivation is  a  very  great  advantage,  because  it  keeps  a  loose 
soil  mulch,  which  does  much  to  prevent  evaporation  of  the 
sub-surface  moisture. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Examine  three  dififerent  farmers'  corn-fields,  and 
see  if  you  can  tell  whether  the  last  plowing  was  deep  or 
shallow.  How  can  you  tell?  Did  they  "hill  up"?  Are 
the  fields  weedy?    If  so,  what  was  the  cause? 

2.  How  many  times  does  your  father  cultivate  his 
corn?  At  what  date  does  he  lay  it  by?  Does  haying  get 
in  the  way  of  late  cultivation  of  the  corn? 

3.  Suppose  that  next  season  proves  to  be  hot  and  dry. 
How  should  the  corn  in  your  vicinity  be  cultivated?  Sup- 
pose the  season  should  be  wet.  How,  then,  should  the 
corn  be  cultivated? 


50  AGRICULTURE 

4.  Why  does  keeping  the  soil  pulverized  and  loose  on 
top  prevent  loss  of  moisture?  What  causes  the  corn  to 
look  yellow  and  stunted  when  the  ground  becomes  baked? 

5.  Suppose  a  careless  boy  covers  up  five  hills  out  of 
every  hundred  in  plowing  a  field  of  forty  acres  of  corn. 
The  crop  yields  thirty-eight  bushels  to  the  acre.  How  much 
would  it  have  yielded  if  he  had  covered  up  none?  How 
much  did  his  carelessness  cost  if  corn  is  worth  fifty  cents 
a  bushel? 

13.     Harvesting  and  Storing  the  Corn 

Corn  is  harvested  in  three  principal  ways:  (1)  it  is 
husked  from  the  standing  stalks  and  the  ears  stored  in 
cribs ;  (2)  it  is  cut  while  partially  green  and  either  shocked 
in  the  field  or  stored  in  a  silo;  and  (3)  stock,  especially 
hogs,  are  turned  into  the  field  to  do  the  harvesting  for  them- 
selves. 

Field  husking. — By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  corn 
produced,  especially  in  the  great  corn  belt,  is  husked  in 
the  field  from  the  standing  stalks.  This  is  the  method 
used  when  corn  is  raised  for  the  grain,  and  the  fodder,  or 
stover,  is  a  secondary  consideration. 

Field  husking  is  the  cheapest  and  quickest  way  of  secur- 
ing the  grain.  In  good  corn,  from  sixty  to  more  than  one 
hundred  bushels  a  day  can  be  gathered  by  one  man  with  a 
team,  at  a  cost  of  from  three  to  four  cents  a  bushel.  Ma- 
chines for  husking  from  the  standing  stalks  are  also  in  use 
on  many  large  farms.  Corn  can  be  picked  by  a  husking 
machine  at  the  rate  of  from  seven  to  eight  acres  a  day,  and, 
where  the  acreage  is  large,  at  a  cost  per  bushel  slightly  less 
than  for  hand  picking.  No  machine  yet  invented  does  the 
husking  as  satisfactorily  as  by  hand.  The  machine  misses 
some  ears,  breaks  others,  shells  off  more  or  less  corn,  and 
pulls  up  or  breaks  many  stalks.  The  corn-picking  machine 
is  not  always  a  complete  success. 


Yield  from  one  acre  raised  by  a  Douglas  County,  Illinois,  corn 
cllib  boy,  150  bushels;  three  loads  for  market,  one  load  for  seed. 


Corn  harvester  at  work. 


52  AGRICULTURE 

One  advantage  of  field  husking  is  that  the  harvesting 
can  be  delayed  until  the  fall  rush  with  other  crops  is  over. 
The  ears  should  be  well  cured  before  being  cribbed,  or 
there  is  danger  of  molding.  This  is  especially  true  if 
the  fall  and  winter  should  happen  to  be  warm  and  moist. 

Corn  should  be  stored  in  well  protected  cribs.  The 
use  of  rail  or  other  forms  of  uncovered  cribs  is  a  source 
of  great  loss.  The  grain  may  seem  to  keep  well  during 
the  winter  in  the  open  crib,  but  when  shelled  and  sold  to 
the  elevators  in  the  spring  it  often  heats  and  spoils.  This 
tends  to  reduce  the  price  of  corn,  and  has  caused  a  preju- 
dice in  European  countries  against  American  corn  as  a 
food.  No  rain  or  snow  should  reach  the  corn  after  it  is 
cribbed,  for  it  is  sure  to  injure  the  quality  of  the  grain. 

Harvesting  by  cutting. — In  average  corn  the  ear  sup- 
plies about  sixty-four  per  cent,  of  the  food  value  and  the 
plant  thirty-six  per  cent.  '  Thus  the  stover  in  a  field  is  worth 
for  feeding  purposes  more  than  half  as  much  as  the  grain. 
If  the  corn  is  cut  just  as  it  is  becoming  well  glazed  the 
stover  is  worth  from  five  to  ten  dollars  a  ton. 

The  time  for  cutting  corn  depends  on  the  use  to  which 
it  is  to  be  put.  If  the  corn  is  grown  chiefly  for  the  grain, 
it  should  not  be  cut  until  the  kernels  are  well  dented  and 
the  husks  partially  dry.  The  stover  will  still  make  good 
feed  if  it  is  properly  cared  for.  After  a  heavy  frost,  or 
after  most  of  the  leaves  have  become  brown,  the  stover 
will  not  pay  for  the  expense  of  cutting  and  feeding.  Cut- 
ting while  the  corn  is  in  the  roasting-ear  stage  makes  a 
more  palatable  stover,  but  the  feeding  value  of  the  crop 
is  considerably  less  than  if  cut  in  the  glazing  stage. 

The  corn  binder. — The  corn  binder  is  widely  used  in 
northern  states.  It  works  successfully  in  corn  from  five  to 
nine  feet'  high.    In  regions  where  the  stalks  grow  from  ten 


CORN  CULTURE  53 

to  twelve  feet  in  height,  the  binder  does  not  meet  with  favor, 
since  it  is  not  yet  built  to  handle  corn  of  this  size. 

■  On  account  of  the  expense  of  owning  and  operating  a 
corn  binder,  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  pays  to  purchase  one 
unless  at  least  twenty  acres  per  season  are  to  be  cut.  From 
seven  to  eight  acres  a  day  can  be  harvested  with  the  corn 
binder,  at  a  cost  of  about  one  dollar  and  a  half  an  acre  for 
cutting  and  shocking. 

The  corn  shocker. — ^The  corn  shocker  cuts  the  corn 
and  forms  it  into  a  shock  carried  on  the  machine.  When 
the  shock  is  completed  it  is  tied  by  hand,  and  lifted  from 
the  machine  by  a  crane  and  set  on  the  ground.  From  four 
to  five  acres  per  day  can  be  harvested  with  a  shocker  at  a 
cost  of  about  a  dollar  and  ten  cents  an  acre. 

Shocking  the  corn. — No  matter  how  the  corn  is  cut, 
it  should  be  shocked  so  that  it  will  stand  erect  and  keep 
the  fodder  dry.  Fallen  and  twisted  shocks  result  in  the 
loss  of  millions  of  dollars  worth  of  stover,  and  not  a  small 
amount  of  grain  as  well.  Shocks  should  be  tied  as  soon  as 
they  are  made,  and  then  tightened  in  a  week  or  ten  days. 
'  Binding  twine  makes  a  convenient  tie.  The  band  should 
be  within  about  two  feet  of  the  top,  so  that  the  shock  may 
turn  the  rain. 

Fodder  should  not  be  left  in  the  shock  longer  than  nec- 
essary to  become  well  cured.  -It  should  then  be  stored  in 
ricks  or  barns.  The  practise  of  leaving  shocks  in  the  field 
over  winter  can  not  be  too  severely  condemned.  For  the 
rains  and  wind  destroy  the  most  palatable  and  nutritious 
part  of  the  plant  and  rob  it  of  a  large  part  of  its  food 
value. 

The  silo. — The  silo  has  come  into  general  use  on  the 
best  managed  farms.  Although  it  will  preserve  any  green, 
succulent  growth  such  as  clover,  sorghum,  cabbage,  sugar 


54  AGRICULTURE 

tjeets,  etc.,  the  silo  is  employed  almost  wholly  in  this  coun- 
try for  the  storing  of  corn  without  curing. 

For  silage,  the  corn,  when  cut,  should  be  ripened  enough 
so  that  it  has  somewhat  glazed,  well-dented  kernels,  and 
the  husks  and  leaves  should  have  begun  to  die.  If  cut 
much  earlier  than  this  a  great  proportion  of  the  feeding 
value  of  the  crop  will  be  lost.  If  cut  much  later,  it  will 
not  pack  well  in  the  silo,  nor  be  so  palatable. 

Storing  green  corn  in  a  silo  is  like  canning  fruit.  In 
fact,  the  silo  is  nothing  but  a  large  jar,  air  tight  except  at 
the  top.  When  the  green  silage  is  put  in,  it  soon  begins  to 
decay,  and  thus  generates  a  great  deal  of  heat.  This  process 
uses  up  all  the  air  in  the  silage,  producing  a  large  amount 
of  carbon  dioxide.  Finally,  the  heat  and  the  lack  of  air  stop' 
all  decay,  and  the  silage  will  keep  for  almost  any  length 
of  time.  Several  inches  of  the  silage  on  the  top  is  certain 
to  spoil,  for  it  has  sufficient  air  to  keep  up  the  decay.  De- 
cay will  also  take  place  where  there  is  any  leakage  of  air 
through  the  walls  of  the  silo. 

Advantages  in  use  of  silo. — There  are  many  advan- 
tages in  the  use  of  the  silo.  Even  the  harder  and  coarser 
parts  of  the  stover,  because  cut  when  green  and  shredded 
into  small  pieces,  are  eaten.  Probably  about  double  the 
feeding  value  can  be  taken  from  an  acre  of  corn  by  putting 
it  into  a  silo  rather  than  by  shocking  and  feeding  it  from 
the  field.  This  will  allow  nearly  twice  as  much  stock  to 
be  kept  on  a  farm  by  use  of  the  silo.  Animals  also  need 
such  a  laxative  food  as  silage  provides. 

Stock  relish  silage  better  than  dry  fodder,  eat  more  of 
it,  and  thrive  better  on  it.  Cattle  prefer  it  to  clover  hay, 
and  eat  it  greedily  even  when  fresh  from  good  pasturage. 
Many  farmers  who  make  a  business  of  dairying  are  coming 
to  feed  silage  all  through  the  summer  as  a  supplement  to 


Harvesting  corn  by  "Iioggiug  down. 


Well  arranged  silos  and  bams. 


56  AGRICULTURE 

pasturage.     This,  has  been   found  to  pay  because  of   the 
increased  supply  of  milk  produced. 

Size  of  the  silo. — The  size  of  the  silo  must  depend  on 
the  number  of  the  herd  to  be  fed  from  it.  Silage  exposed 
to  the  air  decays  rapidly,  especially  in  warm  weather.  In 
order  to  ayoid  waste  it  is  necessary  to  feed  from  one  and 
one-half  to  two  inches  daily  from  the  surface  of  the  silage. 
If  the  herd  is  small  or  the  silo  too  great  in  diameter,  this  is 
impossible. 

Owing  to  the  closer  packing,  silage  is  better  in  quality 
as  the  depth  increases.  It  is  therefore  better  to  build  a 
silo  of  considerable  height  rather  than  low  and  of  greater 
diameter.  Moderate-sized  silos  are  built  from  thirty  to 
forty  feet  deep.  Silos  are  now  being  constructed  with  a 
water-tank  in  the  top  into  which  water  for  house  and  barn 
use  is  pumped  by  a  windmill.  This  gives  the  necessary 
pressure  without  the  cost  of  building  a  tower  for  the  tank. 

The  following  table  shows  the  size  of  silos  required  for 
herds  of  different  sizes   (allows  each  cow  forty  pounds  a 
day  for  one  hundred  eighty  days)  : 
Number  of      Estimated  Capacity    Silo  Diameter    Silo  Heighi 


Cows 

in  Tons 

in  Feet 

in  Feet 

7 

26 

10 

20 

14 

51 

10 

32 

21 

n 

12 

32 

27 

101 

14 

32 

ZZ 

119 

16 

3b 

43 

155 

16 

36 

54 

196 

18  • 

26 

An  average  acre  of  corn  will  yield  from  eight  to  twelve 
tons  of  silage.  Hence,  knowing  the  capacity  of  the  silo  in 
tons,  it  is  easy  to  compute  the  acreage  of  corn  required  to 
fill  it. 

Harvesting  by  "hogging  down." — Under  certain  con- 
ditions corn  may  be  profitably  harvested  by  "hogging  down." 


CORN  CULTURE  '         57 

This  means  that  at  the  proper  time  a  drove  of  hogs  are 
turned  into  the  field  and  allowed  to  feed  themselves  upon 
the  com.  This  method  will  work  well  only  in  cases  where 
there  is  a  drove  of  considerable  number,  and  when  the 
fields  of  corn  are  not  too  large.  The  field  should  be  all 
cleaned  up  in  from  two  to  four  weeks  after  the  hogs  are 
turned  in,  since  rain  and  mud  are  likely  to  injure  corn  left 
too  long  on  the  ground. 

It  has  been  found  by  farmers  who  have  made  careful 
tests  of  feeding  corn  in  this  way  that  more  pork  can  be  pro- 
duced per  bushel  of  com  when  the  hogs  are  allowed  to  feed 
themselves  from  the  field  than  when  they  are  hand  fed. 
The  labor  of  gathering  and  feeding  the  corn  is  also  saved, 
and  manure  evenly  distributed  over  the  field.  Fences  are 
usually  set  up  to  divide  the  larger  fields  into  small  corn 
lots.  Twenty-six-inch  woven  wire  is  suitable  for  this  use. 
The  wire  is  attached  to  well  set,  corner  posts,  and  tightly 
stretched.  It  is  then  tied  to  the  corn  stalks  for  posts. 
This  type  of  fence  will  last  as  long  as  is  required  for  clean- 
ing up  the  field. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Good  corn,  if  cut  when  glazing,  should  yield  about 
ten  tons  of  silage  to  the  acre.  A  ton  of  silage  occupies 
fifty  cubic  feet  in  the  silo.  If  a  silo  is  made  to  hold  fifteen 
acres  of  corn,  and  is  built  thirty  feet  high,  what  must  be 
its  diameter? 

2.  If  a  cow  requires  forty  pounds  of  silage  a  day,  and 
the  feeding  season  is  one  hundred  and  eighty  days,  how 
many  tons  must  be  stored  for  twenty-five  cows? 

3.  If  the  corn  yields  twelve  tons  of  silage  to  the  acre, 
how  many  acres  will  be  required  for  twenty-five  cows? 

4.  How  many  silos  are  there  in  your  school  district? 
Of  what  are  they  constructed?  What  height  and  diameter 
are  they?  Do  any  of  them  have  a  water-tank  in  the  top? 
.Vhat  did  each  of  them  cost?    Draw  a  silo. 


58  AGRICULTURE 

'  5.  If  a  boy  in  husking  twenty  acres  of  corn  yielding 
forty  bushels  to  the  acre  averages  missing  the  throw-board 
of  the  wagon  once  out  of  each  fifty  throws,  estimating  one 
hundred  throws  or  ears  to  a  bushel,  what  is  the  value  of 
the  corn  lost  at  fifty  cents  a  bushel,  supposing  the  stalks  are 
sold  to  a  neighbor? 

6.  Either  from  observation  or  agricultural  bulletins, 
gather  facts  and  write  a  description  of  a  com  harvester ;  of 
a  corn  shocker;  of  a  silo. 

7.  If  a  bushel  of  corn  will  produce  ten  pounds  of  pork, 
which  is  more  profitable,  to  sell  the  corn  or  to  feed  it  to 
hogs,  providing  pork  is  selling  at  seven  cents  a  pound  and 
corn  at  fifty  cents  a  bushel  ?  What  would  be  the  difference 
on  one  thousand  bushels  of  corn? 

14.     The  Uses  of  Corn 

Corn  as  human  food. — Corn  is  a  native  of  America. 
It  was  cultivated  by  the  Indians  before  the  coming  of 
white  men.  Com  was  the  principal  grain  food  used  by  the 
Indians  and  was  also  widely  used  by  the  early  colonists. 
Its  use  as  a  human  food  has  now  spread  throughout  almost 
the  entire  world,  but  it  is  still  most  widely  used  in  this 
country.  Corn-meal  is  the  principal  food  product  derived 
from  com,  but  hominy,  hulled  corn,  corn  grits,  flaked  corn 
and  other  specially  prepared  breakfast  foods  are  also  eaten. 
Corn  starch  is  also  a  common  food  product.  The  unripe 
ears  are  extensively  used  and  the  canning  of  green  corn  has 
become  an  important  industry. 

Com  as  food  for  animals. — By  far  the  larger  part  of 
the  corn  crop  is  used,  however,  as  food  for  animals.  Corn 
is  the  basis  of  the  great  meat  producing  industry  of  the 
United  States  and  along  with  grass  constitutes  the  chief 
food  of  the  animals  used  for  meat.  Farmers  have  found 
it  more  paying  to  fatten  stock  >)vith  com  and  then  sell  the 
stock  than  to  sell  the  corn  itself.  One  reason  for  this  is 
that  it  costs  less  to  ship  the  meat  produced  by  a  bushel 


CORN  CULTURE  59 

of  corn  than  to  ship  the  corn  itself  to  a  central  market.  One 
bushel  of  corn  will  produce  from  ten  to  twelve  pounds  of 
pork,  which  can  be  shipped  more  cheaply  than  could  the 
bushel  of  corn. 

Commercial  uses  of  corn. — Besides  its  use  as  a  food 
for  man  and  beast,  corn  is  employed  in  manufacturing 
some  thirty  or  forty  different  products.  For  example,  from 
corn  are  made  several  different  kinds  of  glucose  used  by 
refiners  of  table  sirups,  by  brewers,  by  leather  manufac- 
turers, by  jelly  makers,  by  fruit  preservers,  and  by  apothe- 
caries. Corn  also  produces  four  different  kinds  of  crystal 
glucose  used  in  making  candies  and  two  kinds  of  grape 
sugar  used  by  brewers  and  tanners.  From  corn  there  is 
made  a  sugar  used  in  the  manufacture  of  ale  and  beer. 
The  pearl  starch  used  by  cotton  and  paper  mills  is  made 
from  corn,  as  is  powdered  starch  used  by  the  manufac- 
turers of  baking  powder  and  by  the  cotton  and  paper  mills. 
Florine  used  by  flour  mixers,  and  dextrins  used  in  the  mak- 
ing of  white  fabrics,  paper  boxes,  and  the  manufacture  of 
mucilage  and  glue  come  from  corn. 

From  corn  there  is  also  manufactured  a  substitute  for 
rubber  which  is  extensively  used  commercially.  Corn  is 
the  chief  source  of  the  manufacture  of  all  alcohol  and 
whisky  and  is  the  cheapest  material  now  available  for  the 
making  of  denatured  alcohol,  which  is  used  for  heating, 
lighting  and  other  commercial  purposes. 

Uses  of  the  corn  stalk. — Even  the  corn  stalk  has 
numerous  uses.  For  example,  from  its  pith  comes  the  cel- 
lulose used  for  packing  in  war-ships.  The  corn  pith  has  the 
quality  of  expanding  when  wet  and  hence  will  immediately 
swell  and  close  any  small  hole  in  the  vessel  caused  by  the 
enemy's  shot.  Corn  stalks  are  also  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  paper  pulp  and  in  various  kinds  of  stock  foods.  Corn 
cobs  are  used  in  the  making  of  corks  and  pipes.    A  special 


60  AGRICULTURE 

Variety  of  corn  with  a  large  cob  is  raised  in  Missouri  fof 
the  manufacture  of  pipes.  It  is  estimated  that  approxi- 
mately fifty  million  bushels  of  corn  are  used  annually  for 
various  corn  products  in  addition  to  those  intended  as  food 
for  people  and  animals. 

The  importance  of  corn  as  a  food  is  increasing  and  sci- 
entists are  discovering  new  ways  of  manufacturing  or 
cooking  it  to  make  it  both  palatable  and  digestible.  The 
very  worst  use  that  can  be  made  of  corn  is  to  manufacture 
it  into  spirituous  liquors  since  the  use  of  alcohol  as  a 
beverage  injures  those  who  drink  it  and  brings  sorrow,  dis- 
grace and  poverty  to  the  user. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Teacher  and  class  should  join  in  making  a  collec- 
tion in  small  uniform  bottles  of  all  the  different  corn  prod- 
ucts available  that  are  used  for  the  table.  (Certain  com- 
panies will  supply  samples  of  their  products  free  of  cost.) 

2.  In  how  many  different  forms  is  the  corn  ear,  or 
grain,  fed  to  stock  in  your  vicinity  ?  In  how  many  different 
forms  is  the  stover  fed? 

3.  How  many  of  the  different  commercial  products  of 
corn  have  you  ever  seen?  What  foods  have  you  recently 
eaten  in  which  one  or  more  of  these  products  was  used  ? 

4.  Enumerate  the  uses  to  which  you  have  seen  the 
corn  stalk  and  cob  put.  Soak  some  dry  pith  in  water  for 
a  few  minutes.    What  happens? 

5.  How  could  you  keep  records  or  bookkeeping  in  con- 
nection with  the  corn  crop?  Make  out  a  debit  and  credit 
book  account  covering  a  season's  work  on  an  acre  of  corn 
from  planting  to  harvest.  (See  Farmers'  Bulletin  No. 
511,  "Farm  Bookkeeping,"  and  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  572, 
"Farm  Cost  Accounting.") 

6.  Sketch  a  map  of  the  United  States  and  locate  in 
this  the  corn  states.  Indicate  by  different  colors  the  first, 
second  and  third  best  corn  sections  of  the  country.  From 
the  crop  report  bulletins  secure  the  figures  of  the  last  year's 
corn  crop  and  the  average  yield  for  each  state  for  the  year 


CORN  CULTURE  61 

as  well  as  for  the  last  ten  years.     Compare  the  yield  of  the 
last  season  with  the  yield  of  ten  to  twenty  years  ago. 

15.     Corn  Demonstrations 

"Demonstrations"  are  now  becoming  common  in  agri- 
cultural work.  The  purpose  of  a  demonstration  is  to 
teach  others  some  definite  and  well-known  truth.  The  agri- 
cultural experiment  seeks  to  discover  some  truth  concerning 
the  work  of  the  farm,  while  the  demonstration  seeks  to 
show  others  how  to  put  this  truth  into  practise. 

Demonstrations  by  the  school. — Such  demonstrations 
as  the  following  may  be  conducted  by  the  school  for  special 
exercises,  evening  programs,  club  meetings,  district,  county 
or  state  fairs,  or  special  farm  festivals : 

1.  Demonstrations  in  making  and  preparation  of  a  seed- 
corn  test  box,  a  rag-doll  tester,  and  how  to  make  the  test. 

2.  Demonstrate  how  to  make  a  seed  tray,  a  seed  drying 
rack,  and  how  to  hang  or  place  the  seed  corn. 

3.  Seed  corn  stringing  demonstration. 

4.  Field  demonstrations  in  plow:ing,  cultivation,  seed 
selection,  hand  pollenizing,  etc. 

5.  Home    economics    demonstration    showing    how    to 
make  corn   food  products,   valuable   dishes,  hominy,   corn  , 
mush,  bread,  etc. 

16.     Corn  Play  Contests 

Play  contests  are  one  of  the  most  interesting  means  of 
learning  certain  facts  connected  with  agriculture.  The 
games  and  contests  in  connection  with  various  farm  activ- 
ities add  interest,  develop  skill  and  furnish  a  great  deal  of 
real  fun  besides. 

Suitable  play  contests. — ^The  teacher  and  pupils  can 
organize  such  contests  as  the  following  in  connection  with 
the  regular  school  activities,  for  the  playgrounds  at  recess 


62  AGRICULTURE 

»or  at  public  events,  such  as  literary  programs,  fairs  or  fes- 
tivals : 

1.  Seed  corn  stringing  contest. 

2.  Variety  or  strain  naming  contest. 

3.  Corn-bread  baking  contest. 

4.  Corn  judging  contest. 

5.  Corn  guessing  game. 

6.  Corn  picking  race.  This  picking  race  is  handled 
something  like  the  old-time  potato  race  where  you  place 
the  ears  of  com  from  three  to  ten  feet  apart  and  the  con- 
testants are  to  gather  twenty-five  ears  of  corn  and  place  the 
same  in  a  box  or  receptacle  in  the  shortest  time. 

7.  Corn  husking  contest. 

8.  Oral  corn  recipe  giving  contest  to  determine  who 
can  give  the  largest  number  of  corn  recipes  in  a  stated  time 
of  five  or  ten  minutes. 

All  of  these  contests  should  be  judged  in  general  on 
speed,  skill,  condition  of  finished  product,  accuracy,  etc. 
(See  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  Circular  104,  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  for  further  in- 
struction and  score-cards  on  all  corn  contests.) 

17.     Corn  Club  Work 

Three  hundred  thousand  farm  boys  and  girls  are  now 
enrolled  in  agricultural  and  home-economic  clubs,  most  of 
which  are  connected  with  the  schools.  Club  work  is  the 
performance  of  a  definite  farm,  garden  or  home  enter- 
prise, and  is  based  on  the  best  known  farm  and  home  prac- 
tises. Club  work  in  connection  with  the  school  may  con- 
sist of  a  number  of  enterprises,  such  as  corn,  garden,  mar- 
ket garden,  poultry,  sugar  beet,  cotton,  alfalfa  and  can- 
ning projects. 

The  corn   club. — One  of  the  most   interesting  club 


CORN  CULTURE  63 

projects  is  the  growing  of  an  acre  of  corn  on  a  business 
basis.  Boys  and  girls  ranging  in  age  from  ten  to  nineteen 
are  eligible  and  the  pupils  may  be  divided  into  two  classes, 
an  A  class  from  ten  to  fifteen  years  inclusive,  and  a  B  class 
from  fifteen  to  nineteen.  The  basis  of  award  for  corn  club 
work  should  be : 

1.  Greatest  yield   per  acre 30 

2.  Best  showing  of  profit  on  investment 30 

3.  Best  exhibit  of  ten   ears  20 

4.  Crop  report  record  and  story  of  club  work 20 

Total    score 100 

Plan  of  work. — The  following  plan  should  govern  the 
conduct  of  the  work :  It  should  be  considered  a  legiti- 
mate means  of  extension  service  for  the  school, — a  part 
of  regular  school  work  by  which  plants,  soils,  insects,  plant 
diseases,  crop  management,  labor  income,  farm  manage- 
ment, etc.,  may  be  studied  systematically  for  an  entire  crop- 
ping season.  This  necessitates  making  use  of  the  district, 
state  and  national  club  leaders  who  always  stand  ready  to 
help  organize  clubs  and  oversee  the  work. 

Report  blanks. — Every  club  should  have  a  crop  report 
blank  making  a  record  of  observations,  receipts  and  ex- 
penses at  the  beginning  of  the  season  and  another  on 
which  to  make  a  complete  report  at  the  close  of  the  season. 
These  blanks  are  furnished  free  by  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture.  Definite  credit  for  this  club  work 
should  be  given  in  connection  with  the  class  work  in 
agriculture  and  other  related  subjects  in  the  school. 


CHAPTER   ir 
WHEAT 

BREAD  is  the  staff  of  life.  Whatever  else  we  may  have 
on  our  tables,  we  usually  have  bread.  It  is  so  com- 
mon and  necessary  an  article  of  food  that  we  describe  pov- 
erty by  saying,  "Not  a  crust  of  bread  in  the  house." 

Yet  the  bread  that  you  and  I  eat,  wheat  bread,  is  really 
a  rather  recent  addition  to  the  world's  food,  True,  wheat 
has  been  known  for  many  centuries, — so  long  that  no  one 
knows  when  or  where  it  originated.  But  not  until  the  last 
few  generations  has  it  been  found  possible  to  raise  enough 
so  that  the  great  mass  of  people  can  have  it  daily  for  food. 

But  even  yet  wheat  as  a  common  article  of  food  is 
almost  unknown  in  many  nations.  Probably  more  than 
half  the  people  living  in  the  world  to-day  have  never  tasted 
wheat  bread  such  as  we  eat  daily.  Either  wheat  is  not 
grown,  or  it  costs  more  than  other  foods  and  can  not  be 
afforded  by  the  common  people.  In  its  stead  they  eat  rice, 
barley  and  other  foods. 

1.    Importance  of  Wheat  as  a  Crop 

The  United  States  raises  more  wheat  than  any  other 
nation,  and  approximately  half  as  much  as  all  Europe  com- 
bined. We  supply  about  one-fifth  of  all  the  wheat  grown 
in  the  world.  Our  annual  crop  is  nearly  700,000,000  bush- 
els, enough  if  loaded  into  cars  to  make  two  solid  trains, 
one  reaching  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco,  and  the 
other  from  Regina  to  New  Orleans. 

64 


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66  AGRICULTURE 

The  wheat  belt  of  the  United  States. — The  best  wheat 
producing  regions  are  in  the  Middle  West  and  North.  Kan- 
sas, North  Dakota  and  Minnesota  produce  not  far  from 
one-third  of  all  the  wheat  grown  in  the  United  States. 
If  to  these  we  add  the  following  twelve  states,  Nebraska, 
South  Dakota,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Ohio,  Washington,  Mis- 
souri, Pennsylvania,  Oklahoma,  California,  Michigan  and 
Oregon,  we  shall  have  the  fifteen  states  that  produce  more 
than  four-fifths  of  all  our  wheat. 

The  yield  of  wheat. — The  average  yield  of  wheat  for 
the  entire  country  is  about  half  what  it  is  for  corn,  or  four- 
teen bushels  to  the  acre.  The  states  that  produce  the  largest 
amount  of  wheat"  are  not  necessarily  the  ones  that  show  the 
largest  yield  per  acre.  Taking  the  average  for  ten  years, 
the  ten  states  producing  the  largest  amount  of  wheat  rank 
in  the  following  order  in  the  yield  per  acre :  Washington, 
first;  Nebraska,  second;  Ohio,  third;  Illinois,  fourth;  Indi- 
ana, fifth ;  Missouri,  sixth ;  Minnesota,  seventh ;  Kansas, 
eighth ;  South  Dakota,  ninth ;  North  Dakota,  tenth. 

The  average  yield  of  wheat  is  gradually  increasing,  but 
all  too  slowly.  With  still  better  methods  of  farming  and 
with  better  selection  of  seed  and  improvement  of  the  soil 
much  larger  crops  of  wheat  can  be  raised.  And  this  means 
cheaper  bread,  and  more  profit  in  farming. 

2.     Types  of  Wheat 

Wheat  is  classed  as  zmnter  wheat  or  spring  wheat,  de- 
pending on  whether  it  is  planted  in  the  fall  or  the  spring. 
It  is  also  classed  as  hard  or  soft  in  accordance  with  the 
quality  of  the  grain. 

There  are  three  more  or  less  distinct  types  of  winter 
wheat,  and  three  of  spring  wheat,  as  follows: 

1.  Soft  winter  wheat. 

2.  Semi-hard  winter  wheat. 

3.  Hard  winter  wheat. 


WHEAT  67 

1.  Soft  spring  wheat. 

2.  Hard  spring  wheat. 

3.  Macaroni  wheat. 

These  types  furnish  a  great  many  different  varieties,  so 
many  that  it  would  be  a  hopeless  task  to  try  to  learn  them 
all.  The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  the 
state  experiment  stations  have  tested  as  many  as  one  thou- 
sand different  varieties  since  1895. 

Climate  and  type. — In  general,  the  more  humid 
climates  produce  the  soft  wheats  and  drier  climates  the  hard 
wheats.  The  introduction  of  hard  wheats  has  opened  up 
vast  western  regions  to  wheat  raising  which  were  too  dry 
for  the  soft  varieties. 

Better  flour  is  made  from  hard  than  from  soft  wheat, 
though  a  very  excellent  grade  is  made  by  mixing  the  two. 
Macaroni  wheat  is  the  hardest  type,  and  is  chiefly  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  macaroni,  though  some  of  this  type  is 
now  being  used  for  flour.  Macaroni  can  not  be  successfully 
made  from  the  soft  wheats. 

Winter  wheat. — Winter  wheat  is  planted  in  the  fall, 
lives  through  the  winter,  and  ripens  the  following  summer. 
It  requires  about  one  hundred  days  to  mature  after  growing 
weather  has  come  in  the  spring. 

About  two-thirds  of  all  the  wheat  grown  in  the  United 
States  is  of  winter  varieties.  In  regions  where  winter 
wheat  will  withstand  the  extremes  of  temperature  it  is  pre- 
ferred to  spring  varieties,  since  it  (1)  yields  more,  and 
(2)  is  more  free  from  disease  and.  from  injury  by  the  vari- 
ous insect  pests. 

Kansas  and  Nebraska  are  the  great  centers  for  the 
hard  winter  varieties,  while  east  of  the  Mississippi  River  the 
softer  winter  varieties  are  chiefly  grown.  More  thao  sixty 
per  cent,  of  all  the  winter  wheat  grown  in  the  United 
States  is  raised  in  the  states  of  Kansas,  Indiana,  Nebraska, 


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RED  FIFE  MINN        BLUESTEM. 

Comuiou  varieties  of  wheat. 


Harvesting  wheat  with  a  uioderu  biiidei'. 


WHEAT  69 

Illinois,  Ohio,  Missouri,  Pennsylvania,  Oklahoma  and 
Texas. 

Spring  wheat. — Spring  wheat  is  adapted  to  localities 
where  climatic  conditions  are  not  favorable  to  winter  vari- 
eties. About  one-third  of  our  wheat  comes  from  the  spring- 
sowed  crop.  Most  varieties  of  spring  wheat  require  from 
one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  days  from  the 
date  of  planting  to  mature. 

Minnesota,  North  Dakota  and  South  Dakota  are  the 
principal  spring  wheat  regions  of  the  country.  These  three 
states  supply  seventy  per  cent,  of  all  the  spring  wheat 
grown  in  the  United  States. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  What  proportion  of  the  tilled  land  of  your  vicinity 
is  devoted  to  wheat?    Is  this  proportion  increasing  or  de- 


creasing 


2.  What  type  of  wheat  is  chiefly  grown,  winter  or 
spring?  Hard  or  soft?  Do  you  know  what  are  the  chief 
varieties  to  be  found  in  your  neighborhood?  Are  the  vari- 
eties bearded  or  beardless  ? 

3.  What  is  the  average  yield  of  wheat  to  the  acre  in 
your  region  ?  How  does  this  compare  with  the  yield  for  the 
state?  (Consult  your  state  agricultural  college  for  the 
yield  of  the  state.) 

4.  It  is  estimated  by  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  that  the  average  cost  of  producing  an  acre  of 
wheat  in  the  United  States  is  about  eleven  dollars,  includ- 
ing rental  or  interest  value  of  land.  Talk  with  your  father 
about  what  the  different  items  of  expense  cost  in  your 
vicinity  (such  as  fertilizer,  preparing  land,  seed,  planting, 
harvesting,  thrashing,  marketing,  rental).  Make  a  detailed 
list  of  these  expenses,  and  compare  with  the  average  cost  for 
the  country. 

5.  In  similar  manner  figure  what  it  costs  to  raise  an 
acre  of  corn.  Then  find  the  market  value  of  the  grain 
from  an  acre  of  corn  and  from  an  acre  of  wheat,  based  on 


70  AGRICULTURE 

the  average  yiefd  for  your  vicinity.    Which  crop  pays  the 
better,  and  by  how  much  per  acre  ? 

3.     GroTmng  the  Wheat  Crop 

Wheat  grows  best  on  virgin  soil,  or  on  land  that  has 
been  renewed  by  means  of  clover,  manure,  or  some  other 
form  of  fertilizer.  The  new  regions  opened  up  in  the  West 
at  first  produce  large  crops,  but  soon  fail  in  yield  if  wheat 
is  raised  continuously  without  rotation  with  other  crops. 

Preparing  the  seed  bed. — Since  wheat  is  one  of  the 
crops  that  can  not  be  cultivated  after  planting,  the  seed  bed 
should  be  prepared  with  especial  care.  The  ground  should 
be  plowed,  and  then  disked  or  harrowed  until  it  is  well 
packed  and  finely  pulverized.  The  preparation  for  the  fall 
and  spring  seeding  is  essentially  the  same.  If  the  ground 
is  new,  the  plowing  may  be  shallow.  The  older  soils  require 
deeper  plowing. 

Spring  wheat  is  sometimes  disked  in  on  corn  land  with- 
out first  plowing  the  ground.  This,  however,  is  a  careless 
method  of  farming,  and  has  been  proved  by  careful  experi- 
ments not  to  secure  so  large  a  yield  as  from  plowed  land. 

Selecting  and  preparing  the  seed. — As  in  the  case 
of  corn,  the  best  seed  for  wheat  is  usually  that  grown  near 
home.  New  varieties  and  seed  grown  at  a  distance  should 
not  be  used  for  the  general  crop  until  carefully  tested  by 
agricultural  experiment  stations  and  found  adapted  to  the 
locality. 

Wheat  selected  for  seed  should  possess  the  following 
qualities:  (1)  A  plump  bright  grain  of  good  wheat;  (2) 
a  stiff  Straw,  able  to  withstand  adverse  weather;  (3)  a 
compact  head,  ripening  early,  and  not  easily  shattered ;  (4) 
good  bread  qualities;  and  (5)  ability  to  resist  insect  ene- 
mies and  diseases. 

Once  the  type  and  variety  selected  for  seed  are  decided 


WHEAT  71 

upon,  the  wheat  should  be  run  through  a  fanning  mill. 
This  will  select  the  heaviest  and  plumpest  grains,  as  well 
as  remove  the  seed  of  noxious  weeds.  If  care  is  taken  thus 
to  secure  the  best  of  the  crop  for  seed  each  year,  there  need 
be  no  fear  of  the  seed  "running  out."  On  the  contrary,  the 
variety  may  actually  be  improved. 

Methods  of  planting. — The  method  formerly  used  in 
planting  wheat  was  to  sow  it  broadcast  on  the  plowed 
ground,  and  then  harrow  it  in.  This  is  a  very  wasteful  way 
of  planting,  however,  since  some  of  the  wheat  fails  to  be 
covered,  and  is  picked  up  by  the  birds;  some  of  it  is  cov- 
ered too  shallow,  and  fails  to  secure  good  roots;  and  some 
of  it  is  covered  too  deep,  and  grows  imperfectly. 

The  method  now  used  in  all  successful  farming  is  to 
plant  the  wheat  with,  a  drill.  This  sets  the  seed  at  a  uni- 
form depth,  and  gives  it  a  moist  fine  bed  of  soil.  Nu- 
merous experiments  have  shown  that  the  best  depth  to 
plant  wheat  for  average  years  is  from  one  and  a  half 
to  three  inches.  iWheat,  like  corn,  loses  both  time  and 
strength  by  being  planted  too  deep. 

Wherever  possible,  wheat  should  be  drilled  in  rows  run- 
ning east  and  west.  In  dry  regions,  the  prevailing  winds 
then  blow  snow  and  dirt  into  the  drills  instead  of  out  of 
them,  as  is  the  case  when  the  rows  run  north  and  south. 
In  east-and-west  rows  the  drill  also  tends  to  shade  the  roots 
of  the  plant,  and  so  protect  them  from  the  frequent  thaw- 
ing and  freezing  which  occur  in  the  case  of  winter  wheat 
when  the  sun  shines  directly  into  the  drill.  Because  of 
these  uses  of  the  drill  ridges,  the  ground  should  not  be 
harrowed  after  the  wheat  is  sown.  . 

Harvesting  the  wheat. — Except  in  the  semi-arid  re- 
gions of  the  West  where  practically  no  rain  falls  during  the 
harvest  season,  wheat  should  be  cut  as  soon  as  it  is  ripe 
enough.     Many  farmers  allow  their  wheat  to  become  so 


72  AGRICULTURE 

ripe  as  to  shatter,  and  much  loss  results.  It  may  be  cut 
while  the  grain  is  still  soft,  so  that  it  can  be  crushed 
between  the  thumb  and  finger.  This  will  not  injure  the 
quality  of  the  grain,  and  the  straw  will  be  of  much  greater 
value  if  cut  slightly  green.  Early  cutting  also  reduces  the 
risk  of  storms. 

In  regions  where  the  grain  can  be  allowed  to  stand  with- 
out shattering  until  it  has  become  fully  ripe  and  dry,  the 
cutting  and  thrashing  are  often  accomplished  in  one  process. 
This  is  done  by  a  combination  harvester  and  thrasher  drawn 
by  from  twenty  to  thirty  horses,  or  by  a  tractor  engine. 

Wheat  cut  with  the  harvester  should  be  carefully 
shocked,  usually  in  nine-bundle  shocks,  eight  bundles  stand- 
ing firmly  on  the  ground  in  the  form  of  a  circle,  and  the 
ninth  used  for  a  cap-sheaf.  Careless  shocking  is  respon- 
sible for  much  loss  from  weathering. 

When  the  wheat  is  well  dried  in  the  shock,  it  should 
at  once  be  thrashed,  or  else  stacked  in  well-built  stacks. 
Wheat  is  too  valuable  to  leave  standing  long  in  the  field 
waiting  for  a  thrashing  machine.  If  once  put  in  stacks, 
it  should  be  allowed  to  stand  for  several  weeks  before 
thrashing  in  order  that  it  may  "pass  through  the  sweat." 

4.    Diseases  and  Insect  Enemies  of  Wheat 

Wheat  is  the  prey  of  many  different  diseases  and  insect 
enemies,  which  sometimes  almost  totally  destroy  the  crop. 
Many  of  these  are  coming  to  be  better  understood,  and  rem- 
edies for  them  devised.  Three  principal  diseases  attacking 
wheat  are  scab,  rust  and  smut.  These  are  all  caused  by  the 
growth  of  fiingi  on  the  wheat  plant.  A  fungus  is  a  tiny 
plant  organism  that  grows  upon  some  other  plant,  or  on 
animal  tissue,  and  draws  its  living  from  its  host.    We  call 


WHEAT 


72> 


any  organism  that  gets  its  living  off  another  organism  in  this 
way  a  parasite. 

Scab  in  wheat. — Scab  is  the  least  common  of  the  three 


A  good  stand  of  wheat,  raised  by  a  Georgia  club  boy. 

diseases  mentioned,  yet  it  sometimes  causes  much  loss  in 
certain  localities.  It  attacks  the  glumes,  or  chaff,  which 
surround  the  kernels  of  wheat  in  the  head.    The  entire  head 


74  AGRICULTURE 

is  seldom  destroyed,  only  a  few  of  the  glumes  being  af- 
fected. Scab  results  in  a  shrinkage  of  the  kernels,  and 
hence  a  reduction  in  the  yield  and  an  injury  of  the  quality 
of  the  wheat.  No  cure  has  yet  been  discovered  for  wheat 
scab.  A  second  crop  of  wheat  should  not  follow  wheat 
that  has  been  affected  with  scab.  If  this  is  necessary,  how- 
ever, the  stubble  of  the  first  crop  should  be  burned  to  de- 
stroy as  much  of  the  scab  as  possible. 

Rust  in  wheat. — Rust  is  one  of  the  most  serious  en- 
emies of  the  wheat  crop.  It  is  nearly  always  present  in 
some  degree,  and  has  at  times  almost  wholly  destroyed  the 
crop  over  considerable  areas.  There  are  two  kinds  of 
rust,  one  attacking  the  leaves  and  the  other  the  stems  of 
the  plants.  The  stem  rust  is  much  more  destructive  than 
the  leaf  rust. 

Rust  may  in  some  cases  live  over  winter  on  the  old 
plants,  and  be  ready  to  attack  the  new  crop  if  wheat  is 
again  planted  on  the  field.  Wheat  rust  also  lives  on  other 
plants,  especially  the  barberry,  and  is  spread  from  them  by 
birds  or  insects  to  wheat-fields.  Laws  have  been  passed  in 
some  states  requiring  the  destruction  of  barberry  hedges 
because  of  their  part  in  spreading  rust. 

Moist  seasons  are  more  favorable  to  the  ravages  of 
rust  than  dry.  Rust  results  in  weakening  the  stem  of  the 
wheat  plant,  and  reducing  the  size  and  quality  of  the  grain. 
In  some  cases  the  heads  even  fail  to  fill,  and  the  crop  is  a 
total  failure.  There  is  no  known  cure  for  rust,  though  cer- 
tain varieties  of  wheat  are  better  able  to  resist  it  than 
others.  The  earlier  varieties  are  usually  safer  than  the 
later. 

Smut  in  wheat. — There  are  two  kinds  of  smut  that 
attack  the  wheat  plant,  loose  smut  and  stinking  smut.  Loose 
smut  usually  destroys  both  the  glumes  and  the  kernels,  leav- 
ing only  the  bare  stem.     Stinking  smut  grows  inside  the 


stinking    smut   of   wheat :    smutted    head   and   smut   balls   at 
right ;  sound  head  and  kernels  at  left. 


76  AGRICULTURE 

glumes,  destroying  the  kernel  only,  and  taking  its  place. 
The  spores  from  which  stinking  smut  grows  attach  them- 
selves to  the  kernels  of  wheat,  and  are  therefore  often 
sown  with  the  seed.  This  fact  makes  it  possible  to  combat 
this  type  of  smut  by  treating  seed  wheat  in  such  a  way  as 
to  kill  any  smut  spores  that  may  be  present. 

One  of  the  surest  and  cheapest  ways  of  treating  the 
seed  for  stinking  smut  is  by  the  application  of  a  solution 
of  formalin.  One  pint  of  forty  per  cent,  formalin  mixed 
in  forty-five  gallons  of  water  will  treat  one  hundred  bushels 
of  wheat.  The  wheat  may  be  spread  out  thin  on  a  tight 
floor  and  sprinkled  with  the  moisture,  shoveling  it  over 
so  that  each  grain  is  sure  to  become  dampened. 

After  it  is  well  sprinkled  the  wheat  should  be  covered 
with  sacks  or  blankets  to  keep  it  from  drying  out  too  rap- 
idly. After  a  few  hours,  it  may  be  spread  out,  or  stirred,  to 
hasten  the  drying  in  preparation  Jor  sowing.  Ten  pounds  of 
copper  sulphate  dissolved  in  twenty-five  gallons  of  water 
may  be  used  instead  of  the  formalin. 

Loose  smut  may  be  prevented  by  what  is  called  the  hot- 
water  treatment  of  the  seed.  The  wheat  is  put  into  sacks 
and  immersed  in  tubs  of  water  warmed  to  a  temperature 
of  one  hundred  and  twenty  degrees  Fahrenheit.  When  the 
wheat  has  become  thoroughly  warmed,  it  is  taken  out, 
drained,  and  again  dipped  in  water,  this  time  heated  to 
a  temperature  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  degrees.  The 
sacks  may  now  be  dipped  at  once  in  cold  water,  which  will 
serve  to  keep  the  kernels  from  swelling.  The  wheat  should 
then  be  spread  where  it  will  dry  quickly.  The  general  use 
of  these  well  tested  remedies  should  make  smut  of  rare 
occurrence. 

Chinch-bugs. — Chinch-bugs  are  among  the  worst  of 
the  insect  enemies  of  wheat.  They  are  easily  recognized  as 
a    small    dark-colored    insect,    with    white    wing    covers. 


I 


Loose  smut  of  wheat.    Sound  head  at  left;  different  stages  of 
smutted  development  at  riglit. 


78  AGRICULTURE 

Qiinch-bugs  damage  the  wheat  by  sucking  the  sap  from 
the  plant,  and  thus  checking  its  growth.  The  mature  bugs 
live  over  winter,  lay  their  eggs  in  the  spring,  and  the  young 
are  soon  hatched  out,  showing  at  first  a  reddish  color. 

No  effective  way  of  controlling  chinch-bugs  has  yet 
been  discovered.  It  is,  however,  helpful  to  burn  the  rub- 
bish of  any  infected  field  in  the  fall,  as  this  will  destroy 
large  numbers  of  the  bugs,  and  leave  the  remainder  with- 
out hiding-places. 

The  Hessian,  fly. — The  Hessian  fly  is  a  small,  mos- 
quito-like insect  that  lays  its  eggs  on  the  growing  wheat. 
These  eggs  soon  hatch,  and  the  larvae  begin  at  once  to  suck 
the  juices  from  the  young  plant. 

One  method  of  handling  these  pests  is  to  turn  under 
the  first  planting  of  wheat  that  has  been  attacked,  and  then 
sow  another  crop  on  the  ground.  This,  however,  is  an  ex- 
pensive method  of  getting  rid  of  them.  The  burning  of 
fields  in  the  fall,  fall  plowing,  and  rotation  of  crops  are 
all  helpful  in  checking  their  ravages. 

Grasshoppers. — Grasshoppers  are  less  to  be  dreaded 
now  than  in  earlier  years,  though  they  occasionally  do  great 
damage  to  the  wheat  crop.  The  grasshopper  lays  its  eggs 
in  the  summer,  and  they  do  not  hatch  until  the  following 
spring.  It  is  possible  greatly  to  reduce  their  number  by 
late,  deep  fall  plowing,  which  buries  the  eggs  so  deep 
that  the  young  when  hatched  do  not  find  their  way  to  the 
surface.  Poisonous  sprays  are  also  used  to  destroy  the 
young  hoppers. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  If  winter  wheat  has  been  sown  in  your  neighbor- 
hood, visit  two  or  more  fields  and  note  (1)  whether  the 
seed  was  sown  broadcast  or  drilled,  (2)  the  direction  of 
the  drill  rows,  and  (3)  the  evenness  of  the  stand. 


WHEAT  79 

2.  Make  a  collection  of  all  the  different  types  of  wheat 
available,  and  learn  to  identify  them,  (1)  from  the  grain, 
and  (2)  from  the  head  and  straw. 

3.  Obtain  samples  of  unthrashed  wheat,  and  search  for 
leaf  rust;  for  stem  rust.  Compare  the  heads  and  kernels 
on  the  rusted  stalks  with  those  on  healthy  heads, 

4.  Find  examples  of  stinking  smut,  of  loose  smut. 
What  is  the  condition  of  the  straw  and  grain  in  each  case 
as  compared  with  healthy  plants? 

5.  Go  out  into  fields  of  wheat  and  oats  stubble  and 
look  under  bunches  of  straw  or  rubbish  for  chinch-bugs. 
Bring  specimens  to  school  and  examine  them  so  that  you 
can  quickly  identify  them. 

6.  Secure  a  score-card  for  wheat,  and  judge  from 
twenty-five  to  one  hundred  grains  of  wheat. 

7.  What  is  the  best  method  for  the  testing  of  wheat 
for  vitality?  Look  up  instructions  on  the  new  blotter  tester 
and  a  few  of  the  commercial  tray  testers.  Make  a  test  of 
one  hundred  wheat  seeds  and  judge  for  vitality,  dividing 
the  seed  after  germination  into  three  classes,  strong,  weak 
and  dead. 

8.  How  would  you  keep  a  record  or  bookkeeping  ac- 
count of  a  field  of  wheat?  Make  out  a  debit  and  credit 
account  covering  a  season's  work  with  one  acre  of  wheat. 
(See  Farmers'  Bulletins,  511  and  572.) 

9.  Sketch  a  map  of  the  United  States  and  locate  the 
wheat  producing  states  and  sections.  Insert  the  last  cen- 
sus reports  of  wheat  production  for  each  state.  Where  are 
the  leading  wheat  mills  of  the  country? 

10.  Compare  wheat  bread  with  bread  made  from  other 
products  such  as  corn,  rye,  etc.  What  differences  do  you 
note? 

11.  How  much  wheat  is  exported  annually  from  this 
country?    How  much  wheat  is  imported? 

12.  What  foreign  countries  produce  wheat?  Locate 
them  on  the  map. 

(See  end  of  chapter  on  "Oats"  for  suggestions  as  to 
wheat  demonstrations,  play  contests  and  club  projects.) 


CHAPTER  III 
OATS 

OATS  are  one  of  the  world's  most  important  grain  crops, 
Though  not  so  old  as  wheat,  oats  have  been  grown  in 
Europe  for  centuries.  They  were  brought  to  this  country 
by  the  early  settlers,  and  are  now  raised  in  every  state. 
The  United  States  produces  about  one-fourth  of  all  the  oats 
grown  in  the  world.  Oats  are  chiefly  valuable  as  a  food 
for  animals,  yet  they  are  also  widely  used  as  a  human  food. 

1.     Importance  of  the  Oats  Crop 

Our  oats  crop  is  slightly  more  than  a  billion  bushels  a 
year,  or  a  total  yield  of  about  one-third  more  than  wheat. 
Because  of  the  higher  price  of  wheat,  however,  the  value 
of  the  oats  crop  is  only  about  half  that  of  wheat.  Among 
all  farm  crops,  oats  rank  fifth  in  value,  being  surpassed  only 
by  corn,  cotton,  wheat  and  hay. 

The  oats  region. — ^The  great  oats  producing  region  of 
the  United  States  extends  from  New  York  and  Pennsyl- 
vania westward  to  Nebraska,  Kansas  and  the  Dakotas. 
Each  state  in  this  great  cliain  plants  more  than  a  million 
acres  of  oats  annually. 

The  following  chart  shows  the  thirteen  states  that  pro- 
duce about  four-fifths  of  all  the  oats  raised  in  the  United 
States,  with  the  per  cent,  of  the  total  crop  grown  in  each : 

80 


OATS  81 

Iowa 15% 

Illinois 14% 

Minnesota 8% 

Wisconsin  6% 

Ohio 6% 

Indiana  •     5% 

North  Dakota 5% 

Nebraska 5% 

Michigan  4% 

Kansas  4% 

New  York  3% 

South  Dakota 3% 

Pennsylvania  ■    3% 

Air  others  19% 

The  yield  and  profit. — The  average  yield  per  acre 
throughout  the  United  States  is  about  thirty  bushels.  The 
highest  yields  are  in  the  far  Northwest,  where  the  rainfall 
is  heavy  during  the  growing  season,  or  where  irrigation  is 
used.  Here  the  crop  not  uncommonly  runs  from  one  hun- 
dred to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  bushels  to  the  acre, 
and  sometimes  reaches  one  hundred  and  fifty  bushels. 

In  the  corn  belt,  oats  are  usually  a  less  profitable  crop 
than  corn.  The  yield  is  less  per  acre,  and  the  market  price 
lower,  while  the  cost  of  production  is  about  the  same.  In 
Iowa  or  Illinois,  the  two  leading  states  in  the  amount  of 
oats  produced,  the  cost  of  growing  an  acre  of  oats  if  we 
include  the  rental  value  of  the  land,  will  average  from  ten 
to  twelve  dollars.  When  oats  are  thirty-five  cents  a  bushel, 
it  is  evident  that  a  crop  of  thirty  bushels  to  the  acre  leaves  no 
margin  of  profit. 

While  oats  do  not  pay  so  well  as  corn,  it  is  necessary, 
nevertheless,  to  raise  them,  even  in  the  corn  region.  For 
oats  are  needed,  ( 1 )  to  make  possible  the  rotation  of  crops, 
and  (2)  as  a  food  for  stock,  especially  working  horses. 
This  crop,  like  corn  and  wheat,  can  easily  be  increased  in 


Two  types  of  oat  liends:  spreading  or  panfcled  on  the  leftf 
side  or  borse-mnne  on  the  right 


OATS  83 

yield  and  profit  by  improving  the  soil  and  employing  bet- 
ter methods  of  seed  selection  and  tillage.  It  is  not  impos- 
sible to  secure  an  average  yield  of  from  fifty  to  seventy-five 
bushels  to  the  acre  throughout  the  oats  region. 

2.    Types  of  Oats 

Two  general  types  or  classes  of  oats  are  easily  dis- 
tinguished— ^the  spreading,  or  panicled,  and  the  side-bearing 
or  horse-mane.  The  former  has  a  spreading,  bush-like 
head,  branching  from  all  sides  of  the  central  stem;  the 
latter  carries  the  grains  on  short  branches,  all  of  which  are 
attached  to  one  side  of  the  stem. 

Varieties  for  different  regions. — It  is  impossible  to 
tell  how  many  different  varieties  of  these  two  types  exist. 
As  in  the  case  of  wheat  and  corn,  new  varieties  are  being 
developed  from  year  to  year.  Several  hundred  different 
varieties  are  now  shown  in  the  seed  lists. 

In  New  England,  the  northern  tier  of  states  and  the 
Rocky  Mountain  region,  white  oats  of  rather  late-ma- 
turing, large-grained  varieties  are  usually  most  successful. 
Examples  of  these  varieties  belonging  to  the  spreading  type 
are :  Clydesdale,  Big  Four,  Swedish  Select  and  Lincoln ;  of 
the  horse-mane  type.  White  Russian  and  Tartarian  are 
well  known. 

In  the  Missouri,  Mississippi  and  Ohio  River  regions, 
extending  as  far  south  as  Kansas,  Missouri,  Kentucky,  Ten- 
nessee-and  Texas,  and  as  far  east  as  Ohio,  small-grained, 
early,  yellow  varieties  have  proved  the  best.  The  Kherson, 
Silvermine,  Big  Four  and  Sixty  Day  are  examples  of  these 
varieties. 

Successful  fall  seeding  of  oats  is  possible  only  in  the 
southern  states.  For  southern  fall  seeding.  Winter  Turf 
and  Red  Rustproof  are  the  varieties  most  used.    For  spring 


84 


AGRICULTURE 


seeding-  in  this  region  the  Burt  and  Red  Rustproof  are  sat- 
isfactory. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.     How  many  acres  in  your  father's  farm?    How  many 
acres  are  cultivated  this  year?     How  many  acres  in  grass 


A 


B 


C 


D 


(A)  Sixty  Day,  grain  medium-sized,  slender,  yellow;  (B)  Red 
Rustproof,  grain  large,  plump,  reddish-brown;  (C)  North 
Finnish  Black,  grain  nicHlium-sized.  plump,  black;  (D)  Swedish 
Select,  grains  white,  large  and  plump. 

land  and  pasture?     How  many  acres  in  garden,  orchard, 
lawn  and  barnyard? 

2.  How  many  acres  are  devoted  (1)  to  com;  (2)  to 
wheat;  (3)  to  oats;  (4)  to  other  farm  crops?  What  per- 
centage is  the  acreage  of  each  crop  to  all  the  land  culti- 
vated?   To  the  whole  farm? 

3.  Find  how  many  acres  altogether  in  the  farms  rep- 
resented by  the  pupils  in  the  school.  Then  answer  each 
of  the  four  questions  asked  in  number  "2"  for  all  these 
farms  summed  together.    How  do  the  percentages  for  each 


OATS 


85 


crop  raised  on  your  father's  farm  compare  with  the  per- 
centages for  the  entire  school  district? 

4.     What  was  the  yield  of  oats  per  acre  on  your  father's 
farm  this  year?     What  is  the  yield  of  corn?     Learn  the 


S/XTYDA, 


swmsH 


Two  common  Aarieties  of  oats. 


market  price  of  each  grain,  and  figure  the  value  per  acre 
for  each.  Now  ask  your  father  to  help  you  determine  the 
cost  of  raising  and  harvesting  an  acre  of  each  crop.  Which 
is  the  more  profitable  crop,  and  by  how  much  to  the 
acre  ? 

5.  Which  of  the  two  types  of  oats  is  raised  on  your 
father's  farm?     What  variety? 

6.  Make  a  collection  of  five  or  more  different  varieties 
of  oats,  study  the  kernels,  and  the  entire  plant  if  possible. 


86  AGRICULTURE 

and  learn  to  identify  quickly  the  chief  varieties  grown  in 
your  region. 

3.    Raising  the  Crop 

Oats  are  usually  planted  with  less  care  than  any  other 
crop.  Where  they  follow  corn  in  the  rotation  of  crops, 
they  are  often  sown  broadcast  on  the  corn  land  without 
previous  cultivation  or  preparation  of  the  ground.  The 
field  is  then  either  disked  or  gone  over  with  a  cultivator 
and  harrowed.  This  is  a  careless  method  of  farming,  and 
undoubtedly  results  in  a  diminished  yield. 

Preparing  the  seed  bed. — When  oats  are  sown  after 
corn  the  seed  bed  should  be  prepared  by  plowing  or  two 
thorough  diskings  before  seeding.  The  oats  may  then  be 
covered  by  harrowing.  The  corn  stalks  should  be  broken 
down  before  disking.  This  can  easily  be  done  by  means 
of  a  heavy  pole  dragged  broadside  across  the  rows  when 
the  ground  is  frozen.  A  still  better  method  is  to  cut  the 
stalks  with  a  corn  cutter.  If  the  growth  of  stalks  and  weeds 
is  especially  heavy  on  the  field,  it  is  best  to  rake  and  burn 
the  rubbish  to  get  it  out  of  the  way  of  cultivation. 

It  sometimes  may  not  be  necessary  to  plow  the  ground 
for  oats  following  a  well  cultivated  crop.  Especially  is  this 
true  if  the  plowing  can  not  be  done  in  the  fall.  One  of  the 
things  most  necessary  in  growing  oats  is  to  get  the  seed 
into  the  ground  as  early  as  it  can  be  worked  in  the  spring. 
And  the  seeding  can  be  done  more  quickly  by  disking  than 
by  plowing.  There  is  little  or  no  danger  to  oats  from 
freezing  after  they  are  sown,  and  the  seed  will  sprout  and 
grow  in  a  much  colder  temperature  than  that  necessary  for 
corn. 

Methods  of  seeding. — Oats  are  sown  by  two  methods, 
(1)  scattering  the  seed  broadcast  overthe  ground,  and  (2) 
drilling.    The  old  method  of  broadcast  seeding  was  to  scat- 


OATS 


87 


ter  the  seed  by  hand  from  'a  sack  slung  over  the  shoulder. 
Machines  for  seeding  have  been  devised  which  can  be  at- 
tached to  the  end-gate  of  a  v^^agon.  The  seeder  is  driven  by 
one  of  the  rear  wheels  of  the  wagon  by  means  of  a -sprocket 
wheel  and  chain. 

Drilling  usually  results  in  a  larger  yield  than  broadcast 


End-gate  seeder  for  broadcast  seeding  of  grain. 


seeding.  The  drill  plants  the  seed  uniformly  over  the  field 
and  covers  it  well.  The  drilled  crop  comes  up  more  evenly, 
and  ripens  more  nearly  at  the  same  time  than  from  broad- 
cast sowing.  Less  seed  is  required  when  the  planting  is 
done  with  the  drill,  since  practically  all  the  seed  is  covered 
and  given  a  chance  to  grow.  This  is  impossible  with  broad- 
cast seeding. 


88  AGRICULTURE 

A  mistake  is  often  made  in  planting  oats  too  deep.  The 
ground  is  usually  moist  when  the  planting  is  done,  and  depth 
is  not  required  to  secure  moisture  to  start  growth.  Many 
agricultural  experiment  stations  have  tested  different  depths 
of  planting,  and  recommend  about  one  inch  as  the  best 
depth  for  most  regions. 

Preparing  the  seed. — Seed  oats  should  never  be  taken 
directly  from  the  bin  and  sown,  no  matter  how  promising 
the  grain  looks.  For  oats  ordinarily  contain  more  dirt, 
weed  seed  and  light  grains  than  wheat. 

The  seed  should  always  be  run  through  the  fanning  mill. 
The  current  of  air  blows  out  the  light  grains  and  much  of 
the  rubbish,  and  the  smaller  grains  are  removed  by  the 
sieves.  This  process  of  cleaning  should  generally  exclude 
one-third  or  one-fourth  of  the  oats  run  through  the  mill. 
If  the  seed  is  very  light  a  still  larger  proportion  will  need 
to  be  rejected. 

Careful  tests  have  shown  that  seed  prepared  in  this 
way  will  yield  several  bushels  to  the  acre  more  than  if 
sown  directly  from  the  bin.  Many  of  the  light  grains  fail 
to  sprout,  and  most  of  those  that  grow  produce  weak 
plants  that  yield  little  or  nothing.  It  will  well  pay  every 
farmer  to  take  time  in  the  winter  to  prepare  his'  seed  oats. 

Improvement  of  the  seed. — It  is  possible  greatly  to 
improve  a  variety  of  oats  by  careful  selection  of  the  seed. 
This  may  be  done  by  going  into  the  field  just  before  the 
crop  is  harvested,  and  gathering,  head  by  head,  the  strong- 
est, largest  grained  and  best  yielding  plants,  also  giving 
preference  to  those  that  are  freest  from  disease.  From  a 
peck  to  a  bushel  or  more  thus  selected  is  thrashed  out,  the 
small,  light  or  imperfect  grains  rejected,  and  the  choice 
seed  sown  on  a  special  seed  plat  to  raise  seed  for  the  com- 
ing year's  crop. 

Harvesting  the  crop. — Oats  are  harvested  with  the 


90  AGRICULTURE 

fgrain  binder,  the  header,  the  mowing  machine,  and  the 
combined  harvester  and  thrasher.  By  far  the  greater  part 
of  our  oats  crop  is  cut  with  the  binder. 

The  best  time  for  cutting  oats  is  just  as  they  are  pass- 
ing out  of  the.  hard-dough  stage  of  ripening.  On  account 
of  the  fact  that  they  shatter  rather  easily  when  ripe,  it  may 
be  necessary,  especially  if  the  acreage  is  large,  to  begin 
when  the  grain  is  passing  out  of  the  milk  stage.  Cutting 
too  early  leaves  the  grain  slightly  lighter  and  of  a  greenish 
color. 

The  best  method  of  shocking  oats  depends  on  the  ripe- 
ness of  the  crop  when  harvested.  If  the  oats  are  in  the 
hard-dough  stage  when  cut,  they  should  be  shocked  in  well 
-built,  round  shocks.  If  the  grain  is  green  and  the  straw 
heavy  or  full  of  weeds,  the  long  shock  is  better,  since  it 
allows  freer  curing.  Either  type  of  shock  should  be  capped, 
except  in  regions  where  the  winds  are  usually  strong  enough 
to  blow  a  cap  sheaf  off,  in  which  case  it  takes  damage  from 
lying  on  the  ground. 

Thrashing. — Oats  may  be  thrashed  from  the  shock, 
or  stacked  and  thrashed  any  time  during  the  fall.  A  some- 
what better  grade  of  oats  is  obtained  by  stacking  and  allow- 
ing the  oats  to  "go  through  the  sweat"  before  thrashing. 
The  straw  is  also  worth  more  for  feed  when  the  oats  have 
cured  in  the  stack. 

The  custom  followed  by  careless  farmers  of  leaving 
grain  standing  for  weeks  in  the  shock  exposed  to  the 
weather  while  waiting  for  the  thrashing  machine  can  not 
be  too  strongly  condemned.  A  period  of  hot  wet  weather 
is  almost  certain  to  start  the  oats  to  molding,  or  sprouting 
in  the  shock.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  weather  is  very 
dry,  the  oats  shatter,  and  many  bushels  are  lost  in  handling.^ 
If  the  thrashing  machine  can  not  be  secured  as  soon  as  the 
vOats  have  dried  sufficiently  to  thrash,  they  should  be  stacked 


OATS  91 

in  well-built  round  stacks   so  constructed  as  to  turn  the 
rains. 

4.     Insect  Enemies  and  Diseases 

Oats  are,  on  the  whole,  subject  to  fewer  diseases,  and 
the  prey  of  fewer  insects  than  wheat.  The  crop  is,  there- 
fore, less  liable  to  total  failure  from  these  causes. 

Insect  enemies. — Chinch-bugs  attack  oats,  as  well  as 
wheat,  though  they  usually  do  much  less  damage  to  oats 
than  to  wheat.  They  can  be  controlled  only  as  already 
described  in  the  case  of  wheat. 

In  some  seasons  the  army  worm  has  caused  much  loss 
to  oats,  but  usually  not  over  extensive  areas.  There  is 
no  satisfactory  method  known  of  controlling  its  ravages. 
What  is  known  as  the  green  bug,  a  grain  aphis,  is  one 
of  the  most  prominent  enemies  of  oats.  Grasshoppers  occa- 
sionally consume  the  greater  part  of  the  crop  in  relatively 
small  areas. 

Diseases  of  oats. — The  chief  diseases  attacking  oats 
are  rusts  and  smuts.  These  are  of  the  same  general  char- 
acter as  the  rusts  and  smuts  of  wheat,  fungous  growths 
feeding  on  the  growing  plant. 

The  rusts  are  of  two  chief  types :  ( 1 )  leaf  rust,  which 
is  of  a  reddish-brown  color,  and  attacks  the  leaves,  and  in 
some  degree  the  stems,  of  oats  shortly  before  ripening  time ; 
and  (2)  stem  rust,  which  is  to  be  recognized  as  black  spots 
appearing  on  the  stems  and  leaves  of  oats  just  before  they 
ripen. 

Stem  rust  is  less  common  than  leaf  rust,  but  when 
present  is  far  more  injurious  to  the  crop.  The  rusts  are 
more  serious  as  an  enemy  of  oats  in  the  South  than  in  the 
North,  appearing  in  the  South  almost  every  year,  and  greatly 
reducing  the  yield.  Rust  is  far  worse  on  moist  hot  sea- 
sons than  on  dry  seasons.   No  sure  cure  has  been  discove'-" 


92  AGRICULTURE 

c 

for  rust  in  oats,  though  some  varieties  are  more  able  to 
resist  its  attack  than  others. 

Smut  ordinarily  causes  more  injury  to  oats  than  any 
other  disease.  It  has  been  estimated  that  from  two  to  three 
per  cent,  of  the  entire  crop  is  destroyed  every  year  by  smut, 
causing  a  loss  of  from  $6,000,000  to  $10,000,000. 

The  smut  of  oats  is  easily  recognized  a  little  time  before 
the  crop  is  ripe.  Instead  of  the  kernels  are  found  small 
masses  of  smut  dust  which  have  taken  the  place  of  the 
grain.  Sometimes  these  smut  balls  are  covered  by  the 
chaff,  much  as  the  kernel  should  be,  and  other  times  the 
chaff  is  lacking  and  the  smut  fully  exposed. 

While  there  are  two  kinds  of  smut  in  oats,  both  will 
yield  to  the  same  treatment.  Smut  may  be  wholly  pre- 
vented by  treating  the  seed  with  formalin,  as  described 
for  the  treatment  of  wheat.  It  will  also  be  effectually  pre- 
vented by  the  hot-water  treatment.  In  either  treatment 
the  method  is  practically  the  same  as  for  the  seed  wheat. 
With  so  simple  and  sure  a  remedy  for  smut,  every  farmer 
who  lives  in  a  smut  region  should  treat  his  seed  before 
sowing.  It  costs  almost  nothing,  and  may  result  in  an  in- 
crease of  several  bushels  of  oats  to  the  acre. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  How  did  your  father  prepare  the  ground  for  oats 
last  spring  ?  Were  they  sown  on  corn  land  ?  If  so,  were  the 
stalks  broken  down,  or  pastured  close?  Was  the  ground 
disked  before  the  oats  were  sown?  If  so,  how  many  disk- 
ings?  If  more  than  one,  was  the  second  disking  across  the 
first,  or  by  lapping?  Which  is  the  better  way?  How  many 
harrowings  did  the  oats  receive  ? 

At  what  date  are  oats  usually  sown  in  your  region  ? 
sWhen  does  harvest  begin?    How  many  days,  then,  are  re- 
f or  the  crop  to  mature  ?    How  much  seed  does  your 
use  to  the  acre? 


Smut  of  oats;  smutted  head  at  right;   sound  head  at  left. 


94  AGRICULTURE 

3.  Collect  samples  of  unthrashed  oats,  and  examine 
(1)  for  each  kind  of  rust;  (2)  for  each  kind  of  smut.  If 
it  is  not  possible  to  find  unthrashed  oats,  examine  straw  for 
rust  and  evidences  of  smut. 

4.  Did  rust  or  smut  damage  the  crop  in  your  region 
last  season?  Does  your  father  treat  his  seed  oats  for 
smut?  If  so,  by  what  method?  Suppose  your  crop  was 
reduced  two  per  cent,  by  smut,  how  much  did  you  lose  per 
acre  ?  How  much  on  the  entire  crop  ?  Would  this  not  more 
than  pay  for  treating  the  seed  ? 

5.  Does  your  father  always  run  his  seed  oats  through 
a  fanning  mill  to  select  the  better  grains  and  remove  weed 
seed?  How  long  will  it  take  to  run  one  hundred  bushels 
through  a  fanning  mill?  Suppose  it  results  in  an  increase 
in  yield  of  two  bushels  per  acre,  how  much  profit  would 
there  be  from  the  cleaning? 

6.  Have  you  seen  oats  left  in  the  shock  until  they 
were  damaged,  either  by  wet  weather,  or  by  shattering? 
About  how  much  per  acre  does  it  cost  to  stack  oats  ?  Sup- 
pose there  is  a  loss  of  one  bushel  to  the  acre  by  allowing 
the  grain  to  stand  in  the  shock;  will  it  pay  to  stack?  (Con- 
sider also  the  better  quality  of  grain  and  straw.) 

7.  Make  out  a  debit  and  credit  sheet  showing  the 
proper  method  of  keeping  an  account  with  a  crop  of  oats 
covering  the  entire  season,  beginning  with  plowing  and 
closing  with  harvesting,  thrashing  and  marketing  of  the 
oats. 

8.  Test  one  hundred  grains  of  seed  oats  for  vitality  by 
the  use  of  the  rag-doll  tester  or  blotter  tester,  and  estimate 
the  percentage  of  strong,  weak  and  dead  seed.  From  this 
base  your  estimate  on  the  loss  of  crop  if  all  the  oats  sown 
in  your  home  field  are  of  the  same  standard  of  vitality. 

9.  Secure  a  copy  of  a  score-card  for  oats  and  judge 
twenty  or  thirty  grains  of  oats. 

10.  Sketch  a  map  of  the  United  States  and  locate  the 
oat  producing  states.  From  the  last  crop  census  record 
the  number  of  bushels  of  oats  produced  in  each  state. 
What  foreign  countries  produce  oats  ? 


OATS  95 

5.     Wheat  and  Oat  Demonstrations 

1.  Demonstrate  the  making  of  a  vitality  test  for  wheat 
and  oat  seed. 

2.  The  method  of  separating  chaffy  wheat  or  oats  and 
weed  seed  from  the  better  grade  seed. 

3.  How  wheat  and  oats  may  be  used  for  the  table.  The 
girls  can  work  out  a  number  of  recipes. 

4.  In  the  field  demonstrate  the  proper  method  of  seed- 
ing and,  when  equipment  is  available,  the  methods  of  pre- 
paring seed  bed,  disking,  fertilizing,  etc. 

5.  Demonstrate  how  to  select  individual  wheat  and  oat 
heads  for  seed. 

6.  Wheat  and  Oat  Play  Contests 

Plan  and  carry  out  the  following  contest  games: 

1.  Variety  naming  contest. 

2.  Wheat  and  oat  judging  contest. 

3.  Recipe  giving  contest. 

4.  Bread  baking  contest. 

5.  Oral  descriptions  by  class  members  of  a  thrashing 
day  at  home. 

7.  Wheat  or  Oat  Club  Project 

A  wheat  or  oat  club  makes  an  interesting  method  of 
studying  the  economic  production  of  these  cereals.  The 
members  of  the  club  should  arrange  to  grow  from  one  to 
five  acres,  studying  carefully  the  system  of  "follow-up" 
instruction  provided  by  the  managers  of  such  clubs  in  your 
county  and  state,  and  keeping  a  complete  record  of  all  ob- 
servations, receipts  and  expenditures. 

The  girls  can  grow  a  small  plat,  .say  one  square  rod, 
with  a  view  to  studying  the  life  history  of  the  plant,  its  cul- 


A  club  girl  wltli  ber  bukiiig  of  bread. 


OATS  97 

tural  methods,  and  its  use  for  food  products.  In  connection 
with  domestic-science  work,  the  girls  can  prepare  for  ex- 
hibit purposes  the  various  dishes  possible  from  the  oat  and 
bake  a  loaf  of  wheat  bread  for  the  school  -exhibit  each 
month.  This  makes  an  interesting  demonstration  for  Fri- 
day afternoon  programs. 

The  following  basis  of  award  may  be  used  in  connection 
with  the  club  work : 

1.  Yield  and  quality  of  production 30 

2.  Net   profit   on    investment 30 

3.  Exhibit  of  products    (grain  and  prepared) 20 

4.  Crop   records  and   story   of   work 20 

Total     Score 100 


CHAPTER    IV 
THE  POTATO 

THE  common  white,  or  Irish,  potato  is  a  native  of  South 
America.  It  was  brought  to  North  America  by  the 
early  Spanish  settlers.  Potatoes  are  now  so  important  an 
article  of  food  in  almost  every  country  that  little  more  than 
one-twentieth  of  the  world's  supply  is  grown  in  the  United 
States. 

1.     The  Potato  Plant 

Secure,  if  possible,  a  complete  potato  plant,  including 
the  roots  and  tubers.  What  is  the  shape  of  the  stem  ?  The 
nature  of  branching?  The  type  of  leaves?  The  flowers? 
Do  potatoes  bear  seed?  Are  potatoes  raised  from  seed? 
Why  not  plant  potato  seed  instead  of  the  tubers?  Are 
the  tubers  a  part  of  the  root  system,  or  do  the  roots  only 
bear  the- tubers  as  the  stems  of  tomatoes  bear  the  fruit? 
Compare  a  potato  plant  and  a  tomato  plant. 

The  plant. — The  potato  plant  varies  from  two  to  four 
or  five  feet  in  height,  though  it  does  not  show  this  great  a 
height  owing  to  its  spreading  habits  of  growth.  The  termi- 
nal clusters  of  flowers  bear  seeds,  from  which  new  varieties 
are  often  developed.  For  practical  purposes  the  plant  is  re- 
produced from  the  tubers. 

Though  both  plant  and  roots  die  upon  the  ripening  of 
the  seed  and  tubers,  the  potato  is  a  perennial  through  the 
tuber  which  reproduces  the  plant.     Since  the  tubers  are 

98 


THE  POTATO  99 

destroyed  by  freezing,  they  are  harvested  before  frost. 
Potatoes  are  annuals  in  all  regions  where  the  soil  freezes 
during  the  winter. 

Tubers. — Examine  a  tuber.  Note  the  distribution  of 
the  "eyes."  These  contain  the  buds  from  which  the  new 
plants  are  produced.  The  end  at  which  they  are  thickest 
is  called  the  "seed"  end,  and  the  other  the  "stem"  end. 
At  which  end  is  the  tuber  attached  to  the  roots  of  the 
plant?  Are  some  potatoes  more  deeply  indented  at  the 
eyes,  and  more  irregular  in  shape  than  others?  Which  are 
more  desirable  for  cooking?  Why?  Which  have  the  bet- 
ter market  demand? 

Though  there  are  hundreds  of  wild  plants  belonging  to 
the  same  genus  as  potatoes,  comparatively  few  of  these  are 
known  as  cultivated  plants.  Among  the  most  closely  related 
cultivated  plants  are  the  tomato  and  tobacco,  which  belong 
to  the  same  family. 

2.    Potatoes  as  a  Farm  Crop 

After  corn,  cotton,  hay,  wheat  and  oats,  potatoes  are  one 
of  our  most  valuable  crops.  They  are  raised  in  every  state, 
though  the  chief  potato  region  consists  of  ten  or  fifteen 
northern  states  reaching  from  the  Missouri  River  eastward 
to  the  Atlantic.  More  than  three  million  acres  are  planted 
to  potatoes  in  the  United  States  each  year.  The*  annual 
crop  is  nearly  three  hundred  and  fifty  million  bushels,  or 
about  four  bushels  to  every  inhabitant. 

The  potato  region. — The  following  are  the  fifteen 
states  which,  according  to  federal  statistics,  produced  the 
largest  amount  of  potatoes  for  the  period  1902-1911,  to- 
gether with  the  percentage  of  the  entire  crop  of  the  United 
States  grown  by  each : 


100  AGRICULTURE 

N€w  York  '■ 12.02% 

Michigan 9.72% 

Wisconsin  9.72% 

Maine  7.60% 

Pennsylvania  6.47% 

Minnesota  5.71% 

Ohio 4.66% 

Iowa 3.93% 

Illinois  3.39% 

California  2.71% 

Colorado-  2.33% 

New  Jersey  2.30% 

Washington  2.18% 

Indiana  2.15% 

Nebraska  1.15% 

All  others  24.35% 

The  yield. — Potatoes,  like  other  crops,  vary  greatly  in 
yield  owing  to  diffeiences  in  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and 
the  care  taken  in  raising  the  crop.  The  average  for  the 
United  States  during  the  last  ten-year  period  has  been  about 
ninety-six  bushels  to  the  acre.  It  is  somewhat  humiliating 
to  know  that,  in  spite  of  our  improved  machinery  and  scien- 
tific knowledge  of  the  soil  and  plant  diseases,  we  are  now  se- 
curing only  about  the  same  yield  of  potatoes  that  was  pro- 
duced at  the  close  of  the  Civil  War.  Experts  tell  us  that 
this  yield  can  easily  be  doubled,  with  comparatively  small 
expense  and  trouble. 

3.    Raising  the  Crop 

The  soil. — Potatoes  thrive  best  in  a  rich  sandy  loam 
containing  a  good  supply  of  humus.  Hard  stiff  soils  or 
heavy  clay  are  not  well  adapted  to  potato  raising.  The 
best  soil  on  the  farm  should  be  devoted  to  the  potato  field, 
both  because  potatoes  demand  a  better  soil  than  most  othef 
crops,  and  because  the  value  of  potatoes  per  acre  is  greatei 
than  almost  any  other  common  crop. 


THE  POTATO  101 

Ground  that  has  recently  raised  clover,  alfalfa  or  some 
other  legume  is  especially  suited  to  potatoes.  While  barn- 
yard manure  will  greatly  increase  the  yield,  it  will  also  favor 
the  ravages  of  scab  and  other  potato  diseases,  and  so  lower 
the  quality  of  the  crop.  It  is  usually  a  mistake  to  plant 
potatoes  on  a  freshly  manured  field.  If  manure  is  used, 
it  is  better  to  follow  a  heavy  manuring  with  a  crop  of 
corn,  and  then  plant  potatoes  for  the  next  crop  in  suc- 
cession. 

Green  manuring,  that  is,  the  plowing  under  of  green 
crops  such  as  clover  or  alfalfa,  will  add  greatly  to  the 
yield.  If  the  sod  is  old,  it  is  usually  better  to  grow  one 
crop  of  corn  before  potatoes  are  planted  on  the  field.  Com- 
mercial fertilizers  can  be  used  to  advantage  for  potatoes  on 
most  soils. 

The  seed  bed. — Potatoes  should  have  an  especially 
well  prepared  seed  bed.  The  plowing  should  be  deeper  than 
for  most  crops,  since  the  seed  is  planted  deeper  and  loose 
soil  must  be  had  for  the  roots  and  tubers.  In  average  soils 
the  plow  should  be  set  to  a  depth  of  not  less  than  eight 
inches. 

The  seed  bed  must  be  well  pulverized  and  thoroughly 
packed.  Usually  not  less  than  four  harrowings  and  disk- 
ings  are  required  for  the  best  results.  Experiments  have 
shown  that  the  difference  in  yield  caused  by  harrowing  part 
of  a  field  four  times  and  the  remainder  of  it  but  twice  may 
be  as  much  as  twenty  per  cent,  of  the  crop  in  favor  of  the 
better  preparation. 

The  planting. — Potatoes  should  be  planted  not  less 
than  four  inches  deep.  Less  than  this  depth  does  not  give 
room  for  the  tubers  to  grow  without  protruding  from  the 
ground.  This  is  sure  to  result  in  injury  from  sunburn. 
Most  potato  growers  drill  the  seed,  dropping  single  pieces 
of  seed  from  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  apart  in  the  row.    In 


102  AGRICULTURE 

some  regions  potatoes  are  planted  in  cross  rows  like  com, 
with  three  cuts  of  seed  to  the  hill. 

The  date  for  planting  differs  in  various  regions,  but 
the  greater  part  of  the  crop  in  the  northern  states  is  planted 
during  the  last  half  of  May.  From  twelve  to  twenty  bushels 
of  seed  are  required  for  an  acre,  depending  on  how  the 
tubers  are  cut  for  planting.  Where  crops  of  any  consider- 
able size  are  raised,  the  dropping  is  usually  done  with  a 
horse  planter,  some  makes  of  which  are  arranged  to  dis- 
tribute commercial  fertilizer  at  the  same  time. 

Cultivating  the  crop. — Potatoes  demand  good  cultiva- 
tion. Harrowing  should  be  done  before  the  potatoes  are 
up.  From  one  to  two  harrowings  may  be  given  after  the 
plants  appear.  Throughout  the  growing  season  a  fine  soil 
mulch  should  at  all  times  be  maintained  by  means  of  iCZ 
quent  cultivation.  Especially  after  a  rain  should  the  soil 
crust  be  broken.  The  cultivation  should  be  rather  shallow, 
and  potatoes  should  not  be  hilled  up  as  is  so  often  done. 

Harvesting  the  crop. — When  the  vines  have  died  the 
potatoes  have  stopped  growing  and  the  crop  is  ready  to 
harvest.  In  the  case  of  small  fields,  potatoes  are  often  har- 
vested by  being  plowed  out  with  an  ordinary  plow,  the 
tubers  being  picked  up  by  hand,  and  the  field  afterward 
harrowed  to  uncover  any  that  have  been  missed. 

In  regions  where  potatoes  are  grown  in  large  quanti- 
ties the  digging  is  done  with  machines,  several  kinds  of 
which  are  now  on  the  market.  The  average  machine  will 
turn  out  about  three  acres  in  a  day,  and  will  require  from 
five  to  ten  pickers  to  keep  up  with  it. 

Storing  the  crop. — In  order  to  keep  well,  potatoes 
must  be  stored  in  a  cool  place.  The  house  cellar  is  usu- 
ally too  warm  for  them,  and  they  also  give  out  an  un- 
pleasant odor  that  permeates  the  house.  A  common  type 
of  vegetable  cellar  to  be  found  on  many  farms  is  built 


THE  POTATO  103 

with  concrete  or  stone  walls,  the  excavation  being  made  on 
a  side  hill.  It  is  covered  with  a  shingle  roof,  and  has  a 
board  floor  on  a  level  with  the  ground  at  the  upper  side, 
thus  making  an  excellent  tool  and  machinery  house  over 
the  space  used  for  vegetables. 

4.     Improvement  Through  Selection  of  Seed 

One  of  the  first  factors  in  successful  potato  growing  is 
the  securing  of  good  seed.  Without  this,  fertility  of  soil 
and  careful  cultivation  are  largely  wasted. 

Good  seed  will  possess  the  following  qualities :  It  must 
(1)  be  pure,  that  is,  free  from  mixtures  of  varieties;  (2) 
be  taken  from  productive  plants,  or  "hill  selected";  (3)  be 
uniform,  in  size  and  shape;  (4)  be  firm  and  sound,  not 
shrunken  or  decayed;  (5)  be  entirely  free  from  disease; 
(6)  not  wholly  mature  when  harvested;  (7)  have  sprouts 
just  showing  at  time  of  planting. 

It  has  been  estimated  by  experts  that  attention  to  these 
points  would  add  at  least  ten  per  cent;  to  the  potato  crop 
each  year.  This  would  mean  an  increase  of  nearly  thirty- 
five  million  bushels,  worth  about  $21,000,000  annually. 

Pure  seed. — Mixed  varieties  present  several  disad- 
vantages in  potato  growing.  The  crop  will  not  mature 
evenly.  Thus,  when  the  earlier  variety  has  ripened  and 
is  ready  for  the  market  or  table,  the  later  one  will  have 
the  potatoes  just  setting,  and  unfit  for  use.  Mixed  vari- 
eties do  not  cook  evenly,  and  when  baked  or  broiled  to- 
gether some  will  be  overdone  before  others  have  softened. 
General  mixture  of  varieties  in  potatoes  as  in  other  crops 
tends  to  degeneration  and  running  out  of  the  breed. 

Seed  from  productive  plants. — Seed  should  be  taken 
only  from  the  strongest  and  most  productive  plants,  no 
matter  what  the  variety.    This  can  not  be  accomplished  by 


104  AGRICULTURE 

selecting  seed  from  the  potato  bin,  any  more  than  the  best 
seed  corn  can  be  selected  from  the  crib  or  wagon.  For  a 
certain  tuber  may  itself  be  of  good  size  and  look  promis- 
ing, but  have  come'  from  a  plant  that  produced  but  one  or 
two  potatoes,  or  that  grew  only  one  tuber  of  fair  size, 
with  several  culls. 

The  most  successful  method  of  developing  high-grade 
seed  potatoes  is  what  is  called  the  tuber-unit  method.  This 
consists  of  selecting  from  the  seed  bin  a  quantity  of  the 
most  perfect  tubers,  each  to  weigh  from  six  to  eight  ounces. 
These  are  cut  for  planting  by  splitting  the  tuber  into  four 
quarters,  from  seed  end  to  stem  ^nd. 

The  tuber-unit  method. — ^The  four  pieces  of  each  po- 
tato are  planted  in  succession  twelve  inches  apart  in  the  row. 
A  longer  space  is  left  between  the  sets  of  fours,  thus  mak- 
ing it  possible  to  watch  the  outcome  of  each  tuber  by  itself. 
Before  the  plants  begin  to  die,  careful  inspection  is  made, 
and  any  mixtures,  imperfect  or  weak  plants  are  marked  for 
rejection.  Only  the  most  promising  and  uniform  are  re- 
served for  the  selection  of  seed. 

When  the  crop  is  harvested,  each  set  of  four  is  dug  by 
itself.  A  further  selection  is  made  by  rejecting  the  total 
product  if  any  one  of  the  four  plants  has  failed  to  pro- 
duce uniform,  desirable  tubers.  The  potatoes  produced  by 
each  set  of  four  selected  for  seed  are  put  into  separate  sacks 
and  kept  for  further  examination. 

Second  season  of  tuber-unit  planting. — Finally,  the 
contents  of  each  sack  r.re  inspected  for  the  weight  of  mar- 
ketable and  unmarketable  tubers,  and  other  desirable  qual- 
ities of  the  type.  From  each  of  the  four-plant  units  the 
best  ten  tubers  are  to  be  selected  for  the  next  year's  plant- 
ing. This  selected  seed  is  planted  the  following  year  in 
the  same  way  as  the  first  season,  thus  giving  forty  plants 
to  the  unit  instead  of  four.  The  product  from  the  best  forty- 


106  AGRICULTURE 

hill  rows  is  kept  for  seed  for  the  general  crop  for  the  fol- 
lowing year.  By  thus  keeping  a  breeding  plat  for  seed,  po- 
tatoes can  be  greatly  improved,  and  the  yield  much  in- 
creased. 

The  tuber-unit  method  can  be  rendered  even  more  ef- 
fective by  making  the  first  selection  from  the  field  instead 
of  the  potato  bin.  This  is  done  by  going  into  the  field 
before  the  vines  begin  to  die  and  marking  a  number  of 
the  most  vigorous  and  desirable  plants.  These  are  har- 
vested separately  before  wholly  mature,  and  seed  taken 
from  the  best  hills. 

The  practise  of  planting  for  seed  the  small  and  unmar- 
ketable potato  culls  can  not  be  too  strongly  condemned.  It 
lessens  the  yield,  lowers  the  quality  of  the  crop  and  causes 
the  variety  to  deteriorate. 

Cutting  seed  potatoes. — Whether  it  pays  better  to 
cut  potatoes  for  seed  or  plant  the  whole  tuber  has  been 
much  discussed.  It  is  believed  by  many  potato  growers 
that  under  average  conditions  the  yield  will  be  greater  when 
quarters  are  planted  than  when  pieces  with  single  eyes  are 
used,  and  that  halves  will  produce  more  than  quarters.  It 
is  not  sure  that  whole  tubers  will  produce  a  larger  yield 
than  halves.  The  weight  of  experience  seems  to  favor 
planting  halves. 

Immature  seed. — For  vitality,  high  yield  and  good 
market  qualities,  potatoes  intended  for  seed  should  be  har- 
vested before  entirely  ripe  (by  hill  selection)  that  is,  be- 
fore the  vines  have  died.  Many  experiments  have  shown 
that  immature  seed  will  produce  a  considerably  higher  yield 
than  seed  allowed  to  ripen  before  digging. 

Home-grown  seed  not  always  best. — Contrary  to  the 
rule  with  most  farm  crops,  seed  brought  from  another 
region  often  produces  a  better  crop  of  potatoes  than  hpme- 


THE  POTATO  107 

grown  seed.  Especially  is  this  true  when  northern  grown 
potatoes  are  taken  farther  south.  Not  only  is  the  yield 
increased,  but  the  time  required  for  maturing  is  shortened 
by  securing  seed  from  colder  regions.  Great  care  should* 
be  taken  in  importing  seed  tubers  not  to  introduce  new 
forms  of  potato  diseases. 

5.     Potato  Enemies 

Potatoes  have  many  enemies,  and  the  number  seems  to 
be  increasing,  owing  to  diseases  being  brought  in  from 
other  countries. 

Scab. — Scab  is  one  of  the  most  wide-spread  and  de- 
structive of  potato  diseases.  It  causes  a  rough,  pitted, 
scaliby  condition  which  may  attack  the  tuber  in  patches, 
or  extend  over  the  entire  surface.  Whether  scab  is  caused 
by  a  fungous  growth  or  a  species  of  soil  bacteria  is  not 
certain.  It  is  fortunate,  however,  that  a  very  simple  and 
effective  remedy  is  known.  This  consists  in  treating  seed 
potatoes  before  planting. 

There  are  several  mixtures  used  for  this  purpose,  the 
cheapest  and  most  easily  applied  of  which  is  a  formalin 
solution.  This  is  prepared  by  mixing  one  pint  of  formalin 
with  thirty  gallons  of  water.  The  seed  potatoes  are  soaked 
in  the  solution  for  two  hours,  and  then  planted  without 
allowing  them  to  come  into  contact  with  bags  or  utensils 
in  which  scabby  potatoes  have  been  kept. 

Leaf,  or  early  blight. — Leaf  blight  is  another  common 
potato  disease.  It  attacks  the  leaves  and  stems,  first  show- 
ing about  the  time  that  the  tubers  begin  to  form.  Its  pres- 
ence may  be  detected  by  the  presence  of  grayish  brown 
spots  on  the  leaves,  the  part  of  the  leaf  attacked  soon  be- 
coming hard  and  brittle.  Within  three  or  four  weeks  the 
leaves  are  all  killed,  and  the  stem  is  also  affected.  The  tubers 


Club  boy,  and  prize  seed  potatoes,  sprouted  enough  for  planting. 


A  potato  club  boy  from  Massachusetts. 


THE  POTATO  109 

grow  but  little  after  the  leaves  are  first  attacked;  hence 
the  crop  is  ruined  unless  the  blight  can  be  checked. 

The  ravages  of  leaf  blight  can  be  almost  if  not  wholly 
prevented  by  spraying  the  plants  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture 
(see  page  208).  This  solution  is  applied  with  a  spraying 
machine  at  the  rate  of  about  fifty  gallons  to  the  acre.  From 
three  to  five  sprayings  during  the  season  are  required  when 
leaf  blight  threatens.  One  pound  of  Paris  green  to  the 
'  acre  at  the  first  spraying,  and  the  same  amount  later  in  the 
season  will  also  destroy  the  potato  beetles,  which  often  prove 
such  a  pest. 

Late  blight,  or  rot. — The  blotches  and  blackish 
streaks  often  seen  running  through  tubers  are  caused  by 
late  blight,  or  potato  rot.  This  disease  first  attacks  the 
leaves  and  stems,  causing  them  to  soften  and  decay,  pro- 
ducing a  bad  smell.  Late  blight  often  appears  suddenly, 
and  spreads  through  a  field  with  great  rapidity.  A  green, 
healthy-looking  field  may  turn  almost  black  in  a  day  or  two. 

The  treatment  for  late  blight  is  the  same  as  for  leaf 
blight,  and  should  never  be  neglected  in  regions  where 
blight  is  common.  It  is  far  better  to  begin  the  spraying 
before  either  form  of  blight  begins  to  appear,  for  this  is  the 
easiest  time  to  prevent  it. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  What  is  the  acreage  of  potatoes  raised  on  your 
home  farm  this  season  ?  If  you  are  not  certain,  go  out  and 
measure  the  field  carefully.  Compare  the  acreage  of  each 
of  the  farms  represented  in  the  school. 

2.  What  is  the  yield  of  your  potatoes  per  acre?  How 
does  this  compare  with  the  other  farms  of  your  vicinity? 
With  the  state?    With  the  United  States? 

3.  Select  two  medium-sized  potatoes,  one  regular, 
smooth  and  with  shallow  eyes,  and  the  other  irregular  and 
with  deep-set  eyes.     Weigh  each.     Pare  both  potatoes,  as 


no  AGRICULTURE 

nearly  the  same  as  possible.  Now  weigh  the  pared  tubers. 
Which  lost  the  larger  percentage  in  paring?  Which  is 
easier  to  pare?  Which  looks  more  pleasing  for  the  table? 
Which  would  be  the  better  to  select  for  seed? 

4.  Bring  a  sample,  of  as  many  diflferent  varieties  of 
tubers  as  can  be  found  in  your  neighborhood.  Learn  to 
recognize  the  chief  breed  characteristics  so  as  to  identify 
the  different  varieties,  such  as  Early  Rose,  Bliss  Triumph, 
Early  Ohio,  Gold  Coin,  Burbank,  Rural  New  Yorker, 
Walter  Raleigh.  What  are  the  principal  early  varieties? 
Late  varieties  ?  Do  you  find  mixtures  in  which  it  is  impos- 
sible to  determine  the  varieties? 

5.  Select  tubers  of  the  same  size  from  different  vari- 
eties, such  as  Early  Rose  and  Rural  New  Yorkers.  At 
your  homes  try  boiling  them  together.  Do  they  cook  in 
the  same  time  ?    Try  baking,  frying,  etc. 

6.  How  deep  does  your  father  plow  the  ground  for  po- 
tatoes? How  deep  does  he  plant?  Does  he  use  commer- 
cial fertilizers?  Does  he  manure  the  field  for  potatoes?  If 
so,  is  the  crop  scabby? 

7.  What  plan  is  used  in  selecting  seed  for  your  potato 
crop?  Are  culls  ever  used  for  seed?  Is  there  any  more 
reason  in  using  small  potatoes  for  seed  than  in  taking  seed 
corn  from  nubbins? 

8.  Suppose  that  seed  potatoes  are  seventy-five  cents  a 
bushel,  and  that  when  quartered  twelve  bushels  are  re- 
quired to  plant  an  acre ;  also  suppose  that  by  planting 
halves  instead  of  quarters  the  yield  is  increased  twenty 
bushels  per  acre,  and  that  the  new  crop  sells  at  sixty  cents 
a  bushel.  Which  way  of  cutting  seed  is  best,  and  by  how 
much  an  acre? 

9.  Bring  samples  of  potatoes  affected  by  scab ;  by  rot. 
Study  the  effects  of  each  on  the  tuber.  Secure  if  possible 
samples  of  plants  affected  by  blight,  and  learn  to  identify 
the  disease.  What  is  the  most  troublesome  potato  disease 
in  your  region?    What  is  the  remedy? 

10.  After  talking  with  your  father  about  it,  itemize 
the  cost  of  raising  an  acre  of  potatoes.  Compare  this  with 
the  cost  of  producing  an  acre  of  corn ;  an  acre  of  wheat  or 
oats.  Now,  taking  the  average  yield  of  each  crop,  com- 
pare the  profit  of  potato  raising  with  that  of  other  crops. 


THE  POTATO  111 

Would  it  not  be  possible  to  double  the  yield  of  potatoes  per 
acre  in  your  region?    How  would  you  go  at  it? 

11.  Illustrate  how  to  keep  a  book  account  of  an  acre 
of  potatoes  from  the  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  to  the  har- 
vesting and  marketing  of  the  products.  Include  items  of 
expense  in  regard  to  yield,  selection  of  seed  potatoes,  grad- 
ing, crating,  marketing,  and  use  of  a  special  brand  or  label. 

12.  Make  a  map  study  of  the  United  States,  showing 
the  location  of  the  potato  sections  and  insert  the  last  cen- 
sus crop  report  on  potato  production  in  these  states. 

6.    Potato  Demonstrations 

1.  Demonstrate  how  to  select  seed  potatoes  from  the 
hill. 

2.  How  to  prepare  seed  potatoes  by  cutting  for  seed. 

3.  How  to  manufacture  potato  starch  out  of  culls  and 
injured  tubers. 

4.  How  to  grade  and  crate  potatoes. 

5.  How  to  prepare  potatoes  in  various  ways  for  use 
in  the  home. 

7.    Potato  Play  Contests 

1.  Potato  race. 

2.  Potato  paring  contest,  based  on  time,  skill  and 
weight  of  peeling,  using  twelve  uniform  tubers. 

3.  Potato  judging  contest. 

4.  Variety  naming  contest. 

5.  Oral  recipe  contest.  How  to  use  the  potato  for  home 
diet. 

8.    Potato  Club  Project 

One  of  the  most  interesting  field  or  garden  crop  projects 
is  in  connection  with  the  production  and  management  of 
a  plat  of  potatoes.  This  can  be  taken  up  uniformly  by 
both  boys  and  girls,  using  not  less  than  one-eighth  acre  as 
a  basis. 

9 


112  AGRICULTURE 

The  club. — ^The  study  and  practise  in  the  work  are  to 
be  based  on  the  entire  managemeilt  of  the  club  plat,  includ- 
ing treatment  for  diseases  and  insects,  grading,  crating,  mar- 
keting, manufacturing  of  potato  starch,  study  of  the  life 
history  and  the  relation  of  the  potato  to  the  various  activ- 
ities and  studies  of  the  schoolroom. 

Club  festival. — A  potato  club  festival,  covering  all  the 
interests  of  potato  culture  in  the  community,  with  the  ex- 
hibits of  both  fresh  and  cooked  products,  lectures  on  potato 
culture,  etc.,  can  be  made  one  of  the  big  events  of  the  fall 
term,  to  which  all  the  patrons  of  the  school  can  be  invited. 

The  Award. — The  basis  of  award  should  be  as  follows : 

1.    Yield    30 

.2.     Net  profit  on  investment •• 30 

3     Exhibit  of  products   (fresh  and  cooked) 20 

4.     Crop   report   and    story 20 

Total    Score- 100 


CHAPTER    V 
FORAGE  CROPS 

OUR  study  so  far  has  dealt  mostly  with  the  cereals — the 
crops  raised  chiefly  for  their  grain.  We  now  come  to 
study  the  distinct  types  of  forage  crops,  or  those  grown  for 
their  leaves  and  stems,  which  are  fed  to  stock.  Besides 
serving  them  as  food  for  animals,  certain  forage  crops  are 
of  great  value  in  enriching  the  soil  and  causing  it  to  pro- 
duce larger  yields  of  cereals. 

When  the  forage  plants  are  fed  green  by  grazing,  we 
call  the  crop  pasture;  if  cut,  and  at  once  fed  green  without 
allowing  time  to  cure,  it  is  called  a  soiling  crop.  If  the  crop 
is  cut  and  allowed  to  cure  before  feeding  it,  it  is  called  hay, 
straw,  fodder,  or  stover  as  the  case  may  be.  We  have 
already  noted  that  a  forage  crop,  cut  and  stored  so  that  it 
will  keep  green,  is  called  silage  or  ensilage. 

1.     Important  Forage  Crops 

The  most  important  forage  crops  may  be  divided  into 
two  broad  classes,  grasses  and  legumes. 

Grasses. — ^The  grasses  are  among  the  most  wide- 
spread and  important  of  our  plants.  They  include  an  al- 
most endless  variety,  many  of  which  grow  without  culti- 
vation, or  even  special  seeding,  the  seed  being  carried  by 
the  wind,  birds  and  in  many  other  ways. 

Among  the  most  important  grasses  grown  in  the  north- 
ern states  are  timothy,  blue-grass,  the  millets  and  red-top. 
Common  to  the  southern  states  are  Bermuda  grass,  carpet 
grass,  Lespedesa,  Johnson  grass,  orchard  grass  and  brome- 
grass. 

113  : 


114  AGRICULTURE 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  our  great  cereals,  corn, 
wheat,  oats,  barley,  rice,  rye,  etc.,  also  belong  to  the  grass 
family. 

While  there  are  so  many  varieties  of  grasses,  they  pos- 
sess certain  characteristics  in  common.  For  example,  prac- 
tically all  grasses  bear  their  seeds  either  ( 1 )  in  a  spike,  like 
wheat,  barley  or  timothy;  or  else  (2)  in  a  panicle,  like  oats 
or  blue-grass.  Most  of  the  grasses  have  hollow  stems,  with 
nodes,  or  joints,  dividing  the  stem  into  sections. 

Some  of  the  grasses  are  annuals;  that  is,  they  make  their 
growth,  raise  seed  and  die  all  in  one  season,  as  oats,  corn, 
or  wheat.  Other  grasses  are  perennials;  they  live  on  from 
season  to  season  without  replanting,  as  timothy,  blue-grass, 
or  Bermuda  grass. 

Legumes. — The  legumes  differ  from  grasses  in  that 
they  bear  their  seeds  in  pods,  like  beans  and  peas.  These 
pods  vary  in  form  from  the  close,  nearly  straight  pod  of 
the  pea  to  the  curled  pod  of  alfalfa.  When  the  seed  is 
ripe,  the  pod  splits  open,  and  the  seeds  scatter.  Most 
legumes  branch  more  freely  than  grasses  and  also  send 
their  roots  more  deeply  into  the  soil. 

Some  of  the  most  important  legumes  are  the  clovers, 
alfalfa,  soy-beans,  cotihpeas,  the  vetches,  and  the  ordinary 
garden  peas  and  beans. 

The  legumes  differ  widely  in  their  manner  of  growth, 
ranging  all  the  way  from  small  herbs  like  clover,  to  vari- 
ous vines,  shrubs  and  even  trees.  Some  of  the  legumes 
are  annuals,  some  are  biennials,  and  others  perennials. 

2.    Importance  of  the  Forage  Crops 
Forage  crops  in  the  United  States  rank  next  in  value 
after  corn  and  cotton.    The  total  acreage  of  improved  pas- 
tures and  harvested  forage  crops  is  considerably  more  than 
all  the  grain  crops  combined. 


FORAGE  CROPS  115 

The  forage  producing  region. — The  most  important 
forage  producing  region  of  the  United  States  is  found  in 
the  north  central  states,  reaching  from  Michigan  and  Ohio 
on  the  east  to  Kansas  and  Nebraska  on  the  west.  The  last 
federal  census  shows  the  percentage  of  forage  crops  of  the 
United  States  produced  by  each  of  the  states  of  this  region 
as  follows: 

Iowa  8.05% 

New  York  7.26% 

Minnesota  6.22% 

Kansa's  6.10% 

Nebraska 5.96% 

Wisconsin  5.15% 

Ohio  4.65% 

Illinois  4.48% 

California  4.45% 

Missouri  4.21% 

Pennsylvania  3.78% 

South  Dakota  3.76% 

Michigan  3.74% 

Uses  of  grasses  and  legumes. — Grasses  and  legumes 
have  two  principal  uses:  (1)  they  supply  the  most  impor- 
tant part  of  the  food  of  farm  animals,  and  (2)  they  aid  in 
building  up  the  soil,  making  it  productive  for  other  crops. 
They  are  also  serviceable  in  saving  the  soil  from  washing 
and  blowing. 

A  great  proportion  of  our  cattle,  horses,  sheep  and 
hogs  are  raised  with  forage  as  their  chief  food.  Where 
good  pasturage  is  available,  little  or  no  grain  is  fed  to  grow- 
ing stock,  and  often  none  even  to  milk  cows.  And  when 
grain  is  used  to  fatten  stock,  or  to  give  strength,  as  in  the 
case  of  work  horses,  forage  is  required  to  supply  the  vol- 
atile oils  as  well  as  bulk  and  coarseness  necessary  to  diges- 
tion. 

Both   grasses   and   legumes   tend   to   improve  the   soil. 


116  AGRICULTURE 

Their  decaying  roots,  stems  and  leaves  form  an  important 
part  of  the  soil,  called  humus.  This  vegetable  matter  not 
only  enriches  the  soil,  but  makes  it  lighter  and  more  por- 
ous, so  that  air  can  better  get  to  the  roots  of  growing 
plants.    It  also  favors  proper  drainage  in  damp  soils. 

Legumes  and  the  nitrogen  of  the  soil. — Legumes, 
however,  enrich  the  soil  in  a  special  way,  and  are  widely 
cultivated  for  this  purpose.  In  order  to  understand  how 
legumes  do  their  work  of  improving  the  soil,  it  must  be 
known  that  plants  demand  certain  foods  from  the  soil.  One 
of  the  most  necessary  plant  foods  is  nitrogen.  If  this  is 
lacking  in  the  soil,  the  crop  does  not  grow  well,  and  the 
yield  is  reduced.  For  example,  wheat  takes  much  nitrogen 
from  the  soil ;  this  is  the  main  reason  why  wheat  can  not  be 
grown  on  the  same  land  year  after  year.  The  nitrogen  be- 
comes exhausted.  The  soil  is  "worn  out."  It  is  estimated 
that  a  twenty-bushel  crop  of  wheat  removes  about  thirty- 
five  pounds  of  nitrogen  from  each  acre. 

Nitrogen  may  be  returned  to  the  soil  in  several  ways. 
One  of  the  most  common  ways  is  by  means  of  barnyard 
manure,  which  is  rich  in  nitrogen.  Another  way  is  through 
commercial  fertilizers,  such  as  sodium  nitrate,  ammonium 
sulphate,  or  dried  blood  saved  from  slaughter-houses.  But 
the  amount  of  manure  is  limited,  and  the  commercial  fer- 
tilizers are  expensive.  And  this  is  where  the  legumes  come 
in  to  help.  Legumes  are  able  to  gather  nitrogen  from  the 
air  and  deposit  it  in  the  soil. 

There  are  millions  of  pounds  of  nitrogen  in  the  atmos- 
phere resting  on  every  acre  of  ground.  But  the  plants 
can  not  make  use  of  this  nitrogen  in^  the  form  in  which  it 
exists  in  the  air.  It  has  to  be  made  over  for  them.  This 
is  accomplished  by  bacteria  which  have  their  homes  in  the 
tubercles  or  nodules  found  on  the  roots  of  leguminous 
plants. 


FORAGE  CROPS  117' 

In  the  small  tubercles  to  be  seen  on  the  roots  of  clover, 
alfalfa,  soy-beans  or  cow-peas  are  millions  of  bacteria,  each 
able  in  the  process  of  its  own  growth  to  take  nitrogen  from, 
the  air,  change  it  into  the  form  needed  by  growing, 
plants,  and  leave  it  in  the  soil  for  the  next  crop.  In  this 
way  the  legume  is  able  not  only  to  secure  its  own  growth, 
but  to  leave  the  soil  richer  through  the  action  of  its  bac- 
teria friends.  The  raising  of  legumes  is  therefore:  one  of: 
the  best  and  most  economical  ways  of  enriching  the  soil.  So 
important  is  the  group  of  legumes  that  a  separate:  chapter 
will  be  given  the  most  important  ones. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  What  are  the  chief  grasses  used  for  pasturage  in? 
your  neighborhood?     For  hay?    For  lawns? 

2.  What  are  the  principal  legumes  cultivated  in  your 
vicinity?    Which  are  annuals?    Which  are  perennials? 

3.  Make  a  collection  of  the  principal  grasses  found  on 
your  father's  farm.  Study  their  method  of  growth.  Com- 
pare stems,  leaves,  roots,  and  method  of  seed  bearing. 

4.  Make  a  similar  collection  and  study  of  the  com- 
mon legumes. 

5.  Secure  the  roots  of  clover,  of  alfalfa,  of  peas,  beans 
and  any  other  available  legumes.  Make  a  study  of  the  tu- 
bercles, comparing  size  and  number.  The  bacteria  are  too* 
small  to  be  seen  except  with  a  powerful  microscope.  The 
tubercles  are  most  plentiful  in  the  early  part  of  the  grow- 
ing season. 

6.  Illustrate  how  a  bookkeeping  record  can  be  kept  of 
the  various  types  of  forage  crops,  such  as  alfalfa,  cow- 
peas,  red  and  crimson  clover,  blue-grass,  etc. 

7.  Make  a  study  of  the  map,  locate  the  principal  for- 
age territories,  and  indicate  the  various  types  of  grasses 
and  forage  crops  that  are  being  produced  in  the  different 
sections.  Indicate  in  each  state  the  acreage  allotted  to 
each  type  of  forage. 

8.  Indicate  what  kind  of  stock  thrives  best  on  certain 
forage  crops,  and  tell  why. 


118  AGRICULTURE 

'  3.     Forage  Demonstrations 

1.  Demonstrate  how  to  prepare  and  make  exhibits  of 
the  various  types  of  grasses,  legumes,  plants,  etc. 

2.  How  to  make  a  grass  seed  test. 

3.  The  difference  between  a  good  and  a  poor  grass 
seed  head. 

4.  Show  how  grass  seed  should  be  sown  and  what  con- 
stitutes a  good  stand. 

5.  Demonstrate  how  to  make  different  things  in  con- 
nection with  the  forage  crops,  such  as  haycocks,  stacks, 
and  how  to  cut  hay  with  the  scythe. 

4.     Forage  Crop  Club  Project 

In  many  schools  it  will  be  practicable  for  boys  and  girls 
to  organize  into  clubs  for  the  purpose  of  growing  and  de- 
monstrating the  possibilities  of  profitable  farming  in  alfalfa, 
red  clover,  crimson  clover,  cow-peas,  beans,  etc.  The  age 
requirements  should  be  the  same  as  in  other  clubs.  The 
area  of  the  plot  should  not  be  less  than  one  acre  and  may 
be  more,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  field  available  for 
club  work. 

The  award. — The  basis  of  award  should  be : 

1.  Average  yield  per  acre 30 

2.  Net  profit  on  investment 30 

3.  Exhibit  of  products  (hay  and  seed) 20 

4.  Crop   report  and  story 20 

Total  score 100 

For  most  localities  the  four  most  important  forage  crops 
in  which  to  organize  clubs  would  be  alfalfa,  clovers,  cow- 
peas,  and  blue-grass  sod  for  the  lawn. 


CHAPTER    VI 
THE  CLOVERS 

CLOVERS  are  the  most  widely  grown  family  of  legumes 
among  the  farm  crops.  There  are  many  different  ty^es 
of  clover,  such  as  red  clover,  white  clover,  alsike  clover  and 
crimson  clover.  By  far  the  most  important  of  these  is  the 
red  clover,  especially  throughout  the  northeastern  quarter 
of  the  United  States.  The  great  red-clover  section  reaches 
frorh  Maine  to  Virginia,  and  as  far  west  as  the  Missouri 
River.  Either  alone,  or  mixed  with  grasses  for  hay  and 
pastures,  red  clover  claims  from  one-eighth  to  one-third  of 
all  the  cultivated  land  throughout  the  eastern  and  north 
central  states.  It  is  now  also  being  successfully  grown  in 
Montana,  Washington,  Oregon  and  in  the  far  Southwest. 

1.     The  Red-Clover  Plant 

Red  clover  is  so  common  a  plant  that  it  can  usually  be 
studied  near  at  hand  in  the  field.  Every  pupil  should  there- 
fore examine  the  growing  plant,  and  bring  a  complete  speci- 
men, including  the  root,  to  school  for  further  reference. 
Also  secure  a  plant  of  timothy,  the  grass  that  is  commonly 
grown  with  red  clover. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

Study  of  the  red-clover  plant. — Compare  the  clover 
and  timothy  plants  (1)  as  to  root  systems,  (2)  stem  and 
mode  of  branching,  (3)  mode  of  flowering  and  seed  bear- 
ing. 

119 


A  youu},'  rtHl-clover  plant,  sLowiuy  llie  ebanjcterlstlc  uodules 
on  the  roots. 


THE  CLOVERS  121 

1.  Which  has  the  longer  roots?  Which  will  make  the 
denser  sod?  Why?  Do  you  find  any  tubercles  on  the 
roots?  Is  the  stem  of  either  hollow?  Jointed?  Which 
stands  more  erect  ?  Why  ?  What  is  the  difference  in  their 
leaves?  Which  bears  the  larger  number  of  seeds  to  the 
head?    The  larger  seeds? 

2.  After  red  clover  has  been  cut,  from  what  part  of 
the  plant  does  the  new  growth  start?  How  many  cut- 
tings a  season  can  usually  be  made  of  red  clover?  Which 
cutting  is  used  for  the  production  of  seed? 

3.  What  is  the  shape  of  the  individual  flower  of  the  red 
clover?  How  many  flowers  to  the  average  head?  How 
many  seeds  does  each  flower  bear?  What  is  the  shape  of 
the  seed?  Learn  to  identify  it  when  mixed  with  the  weed 
seeds  most  commonly  found  in  red  clover,  such  as  trefoil, 
curled  dock,  wild  mustard,  dodder,  or  others. 

4.  Write  an  accurate  description  of  the  red-clover 
plant,  so  that  one  who  has  never  seen  the  plant  could 
identify  it  from  your  description. 

2.     Value  of  Red  Clover  on  the  Farm 

Red  clover  as  forage  for  stock.— Red  clover  makes  an 
ideal  forage  crop  for  all  classes  of  farm  stock.  Besides 
being  highly  palatable,  it  contains  a  large  proportion  of 
protein,  one  of  the  most  necessary  elements  of  food  for  ani- 
mals. So  essential  is  protein  for  the  growth  of  animals 
and  the  production  of  milk  and  butter,  that  bran,  oilmeal, 
and  cottonseed-meal  are  commonly  fed  to  supply  this  ele- 
ment. Where  red  clover  can  be  successfully  raised  it  largely 
takes  the  place  of  these  more  costly  foods,  and  at  the  same 
time  supplies  the  roughage  needed  by  all  animals.  When 
grain  is  fed,  as  to  chickens,  hogs  or  cattle,  red  clover,  either 
green  or  cured,  forms  a  most  valuable  item  of  food. 

The  worth  of  clover  as  an  animal  food  has  not  been 
fully  understood.  It  has  been  computed  by  experts  that  a 
ton  of  red-clover  hay  has  almost  two-thirds  as  much  feed- 


122  AGRICULTURE 

ing  value  for  farm  stock  as  a  ton  of  wheat  bran,  and  more 
than  two-thirds  the  feeding  vakie  of  a  ton  of  shelled  corn. 

Red  clover  as  a  soil  renewer. — As  a  soil  stimulant  and 
fertilizer  red  clover  is  almost  without  a  peer  except  alfalfa. 
By  its  use  in  the  rotation  of  crops,  it  is  possible  to  keep 
the  supply  of  nitrogen  and  humus  almost  undiminished  in 
the  soil,  throughout  years  of  cropping.  The  bacteria  living 
in  the  root  tubercles  transform  atmospheric  nitrogen  into 
soil  nitrogen  and  leave  it  for  other  crops.  The  roots  and 
stems,  decaying,  add  to  the  humus. 

At  the  average  price  for  commercial  fertilizers  often 
used  to  enrich  land,  a  ton  of  clover  is  worth  nearly  ten  dol- 
lars to  plow  under  as  a  fertilizer.  Fields  which  have  been 
in  red  clover  frequently  produce  ten  bushels  more  of  grain 
to  the  acre  than  before  the  clover  was  grown. 

In  the  use  of  clover  as  a  fertilizer  it  must  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  clover  adds  to  the  soil  chiefly  nitrogen 
and  humus;  and  that  if  the  crop  is  all  removed  each  year, 
none  being  plowed  tinder  and  no  manure  returned  the 
amount  of  nitrogen  humus  in  the  soil  is  increased  but  very 
little.  Potash  and  phosphorus,  two  other  plant  foods  often 
failing  in  worn  soils,  must  be  supplied  either  by  the  use  of 
commercial  fertilizers  or  barnyard  manure. 

3.    The  Raising  of  Red  Clover 

Red  clover  will  grow  successfully  on  any  soil  that  will 
raise  corn.  Soil  that  is  wet  and  heavy  or  lacking  in  humus 
will  not  produce  a  satisfactory  stand  of  clover.  Red  clover 
has  a  remarkable  root  system,  sending  its  main  roots  down 
as  deep  as  six  or  eight  feet  in  favorable  soil.  This  enables 
plants  which  have  received  a  good  start  to  withstand  con- 
siderable drought. 

The  seed  bed. — The  seed  bed   for  clover  should  be 


Sweet  clover  ou  an  Iowa  farm. 


124  AGRICULTURE 

finely  pulverized,  but  well  packed.  If  sown  on  freshly 
plowed  land,  it  is  necessary  to  harrow  until  the  ground  be- 
comes firm,  else  a  poor  stand  is  sure  to  follow.  The 
ground  should  be  clean,  as  clover  is  not  a  good  fighter  of 
weeds. 

Red  clover  may  be.  sown  in  the  early  spring  on  fields  of 
winter  wheat.  In  this  case  no  preparation  of  the  seed  bed 
is  required.  The  covering  of  the  seed  may  be  accomplished 
by  weathering.  A  more  certain  way  is  to  harrow  the 
wheat  after  the  clover  has  been  sown,  or  even  both  before 
and  after  the  seeding  of  the  clover.  This  does  not  injure 
the  wheat.  Red  clover  is  also  often  sown  in  the  spring 
with  oats  as  a  nurse  crop. 

Another  common  method  of  seeding  red  clover  is  in 
standing  corn  just  following  the  last  cultivation.  This  plan 
has  worked  successfully,  especially  in  the  New  England 
states.  If  the  crop  of  corn  is  heavy  enough  to  shade  the 
ground,  or  if  the  fall  happens  to  be  dry,  a  successful  stand 
is  uncertain. 

Time  of  sowing. — In  the  larger  part  of  the  red-clover 
region,  it  does  not  seem  to  matter  greatly  whether  the 
clover  is  sown  in  the  spring  or  the  fall.  Which  time  is  better 
depends  on  the  season.  Young  clover  plants  do  not  easily 
withstand  drought.  If  a  dry  season  follows  the  seeding,  the 
stand  will  not  succeed  no  matter  when  the  planting  is  done. 

In  spring  seeding  with  a  nurse  crop  of  winter  wheat,  the 
clover  should  be  sown  at  the  earliest  possible  moment.  If 
the  ground  is  not  to  be  harrowed  to  cover  the  seed,  it  may 
be  sown  on  a  late  fall  of  snow.  This  gives  the  clover  plants 
the  advantage  of  a  start  before  the  moisture  is  out  of  the 
soil,  and  also  before  the  nurse  crop  gets  large  enough  to 
shade  the  young  plants. 

If  the  seeding  is  done  in  the  fall,  the  crop  should  be 


THE  CLOVERS 


125 


sown  early  enough  that  the  clover  plants  attain  a  growth 
of  from  four  to  six  inches  before  freezing  weather  comes 


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Seeds   of   red   clover   and   common    im- 
purities. 

on.  Otherwise  they  may  not  be  able  to  live  through  the 
winter,  especially  in  the  northern  states.  Seeding  after 
August  fifteenth  is  unsafe  in  the  northern  states. 


126  AGRICULTURE 

Clover  seed. — ^A  great  deal  of  the  trouble  found  in 
securing  a  good  stand  of  red  clover  comes  from  poor  seed. 
Good  red-clover  seed  should  (1)  be  plump,  and  not  shriv- 
eled; (2)  look  bright  instead  of  dull;  (3)  vary  in  color 
frorri  violet  to  light  yellow,  but  not  be  a  dull  brown;  (4) 
show  individual  seeds  medium  to  large  size;  (5)  be  free 
from  all  weed  seed  and  rubbish;  (6)  be  free  from  what 
is  called  "hard"  seed.  By  hard  seed  is  meant  grains  whose 
seed  coat  is  such  that  the  seed  absorbs  moisture  but  slowly 
and  hence  may  not  germinate  for  several  weeks  or  even 
months.  The  seed  of  very  new  varieties  may  contain  as 
much  as  fifty  to  sixty  per  cent,  of  hard  seed. 

As  is  the  case  with  most  other  farm  crops,  it  is  safer  to 
secure  clover  seed  from  near  home  than  from  a  distance. 
In  this  way  one  may  be  sure  that  the  variety  is  adapted 
to  the  vicinity,  and  that  the  seed  does  not  contain  noxious 
weeds  and  other  impurities. 

Cleaning  red-clover  seed. — Ordinary  red-clover  seed 
contains  many  different  kinds  of  weed  seeds.  Some  of 
these  look  enough  like  clover  grains  that  they  may  pass 
unnoticed.  Sowing  clover  mixed  with  weeds  not  only 
reduces  the  stand  of  clover,  but  compels  the  clover  to  divide 
its  moisture  and  food  with  its  worst  enemies,  besides  ren- 
dering the  ground  foul  for  other  crops. 

Screening  red-clover  seed  through  a  sieve  with  twenty 
meshes  to  the  inch  will  remove  all  the  smaller  weed  seeds, 
while  retaining  the  medium-sized  and  larger  clover  grains. 
Seeds  of  wild  carrot,  ragweed,  thistles,  buckthorn,  wild 
chickory,  and  several  other  weeds  bearing  large  seeds  are 
not  removed  in  this  way.  Clover  seed  should  first  of  all 
be  selected  from  a  field  that  is  as  free  as  possible  from 
weeds.  Even  then,  screening  will  pay,  however,  for  the 
removal  of  the  smaller  clover  and  weed  seeds. 


THE  CLOVERS  '  127 

4,    Harvesting  the  Red-Clover  Crop 

Red  clover  should  be  cut  for  hay  just  as  it  is  past  full 
bloom.  If  cut  much  earlier  than  this  the  entire  food  value 
of  the  plant  is  not  obtained;  if  it  is  allowed  to  stand  too 
long-  the  leaves  begin  to  fall,  and  the  stems  become  dry 
and  stiff.  If  the  second  crop  is  to  be  cut  for  seed,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  cut  the  first  somewhat  early. 

The  care  of  clover  hay. — In  stacking  or  mowing  the 
hay  in  a  barn,  the  important  thing  is  to  avoid  exposure  to 
the  weather,  or  becoming  dry  enough  so  that  the  leaves 
crumble  and  are  lost.  For  the  leaves  of  red  clover,  while 
they  are  only  about  forty  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  plant, 
contain  almost  two-thirds  of  the  protein  of  the  whole  plant. 
Clover  hay  that  has  become  too  dry  is  also  very  dusty,  and 
not  so  good  for  feed. 

Red-clover  hay  does  not  shed  rain  so  well  as  the  grass 
hays,  and  should  therefore  be  stored  in  a  barn  where  pos- 
sible. If  it  must  be  put  in  stacks,  these  should  be  built 
with  the  greatest  care,  keeping  the  middle  of  the  stack  full 
and  well  tramped.  The  top  should  be  covered  with 
canvas,  or  with  a  coating  of  grass  or  straw. 

Care  must  be  taken  not  to  put  red  clover  into  the  barn  or 
stack  when  it  is  damp  from  dew  or  rain,  as  it  has  a  tend- 
ency to  heat.  This  heating  not  only  damages  the  hay, 
but  not  infrequently  sets  fire  to  the  stack  or  barn  and  burns 
it  down. 

Harvesting  red  clover  for  seed. — Red-clover  seed  is 
usually  secured  from  the  second  crop  of  the  season,  the 
first  being  harvested  for  hay.  The  clover  is  cut  either  with 
a  mower  or  a  special  header,  and  run  through  a  clover 
huller.  By  special  adjustment  an  ordinary  thrashing  ma- 
chine may  be  used  for  hulling  the  seed.  Cover  straw  still 
possesses  good  feeding  value  after  the  seed  is  removed. 


128  •  AGRICULTURE 

5.     The  Enemies  of  Red  Clover 

In  the  starting  of  the  clover  crop,  the  two  principal  ene- 
mies to  be  encountered  are  drought  and  hard  winters.  A 
stand  not  infrequently  fails  from  one  or  the  other  of -these 
natural  causes,  which  can  not  be  guarded  against,  except  to 
sow  the  crop  at  proper  times,  and  according  to  proper  meth- 
ods of  seeding.  Red  clover  is  so  valuable,  however,  that 
an  occasional  failure  to  secure  a  stand  should  only  spur 
the  farmer  to  try  for  better  success. 

Insect  enemies. — Various  insects  seem  to  find  red 
clover  highly  palatable,  and  hence  feed  upon  it.  Yet  only 
a  few  of  these  do  the  crop  any  great  damage. 

One  of  the  worst  of  these  pests  is  a  small  species  of 
beetle  known  as  the  clover  root-borer.  This  beetle  is  of  a 
brownish  color,  and  grows  about  one-sixth  of  an  inch  in 
length.  The  larvae  of  this  insect  attack  the  roots  of  the 
clover,  usually  during  the  second  year  of  the  crop.  They 
have  done  the  most  damage  in  regions  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River,  especially  in  Michigan,  Indiana  and  Ohio.  The 
only  remedy  so  far  found  is  to  plow  the  damaged  field  as 
soon  as  the  hay  is  removed.  The  larvae  are  then  without 
food  and  soon  die,  leaving  the  field  free  of  their  kind  for 
a  future  crop. 

The  seed-bearing  qualities  of  red  clover  are  often  seri- 
ously damaged  by  the  clover-seed  chalcis  fly.  This  is  an 
insect  shaped  like  a  wasp,  and  about  the  size  of  a  seed  of 
red  clover.  Just  before  the  clover  seed  begins  to  harden 
this  fly  lays  its  eggs  in  the  growing  seed.  As  the  larvae 
develop  they  use  the  seed  for  food,  entirely  destroying  it  by 
the  time  they  secure  their  growth.  The  chalcis  fly  is  respon- 
sible for  much  of  the  poor  yield  of  clover  seed.  It  is  one 
of  the  worst  clover  crop  pests  in  the  United  States.  It  is 
thought  that  light  pasturing  in  the  early  spring,  or  even 


Effect  on  clover  seed  of    Stages  in  development  of  red-clover 
the  chalcis  fly.  seed:     (a)     flower;     (b)    immature 

seed  vessel ;  (c)  flower  ripe;  (d)  ma- 
ture seed  vessel ;  (e)  seed. 


Second  crop  of  red  clover  nearly  ready  to  cut  for  seed.     The 
first  crop  yielded  2^2  tons  to  the  acre. 


130  AGRICULTURE 

mowing  the  clover  soon  after  it  starts  will  do  much  to  reduce 
the  danger. 

Clover  has  at  least  one  enemy  that  works  after  the 
crop  is  stacked  or  mowed;  this  is  the  clover-hay  worm.  It 
usually  works  in  the  bottom  of  the  stack  or  mow,  eating 
the  softer  portions  of  the  plant,  but  also  damaging  the 
feeding  qualities  of  the  hay  by  its  excrement  and  a  web 
that  it  leaves.  Salting  the  hay  near  the  bottom  of  the 
stack  or  mow  will  do  much  toward  stopping  the  work  of 
this  pest. 

While  the  botanists  tell  us  that  red  clover  is  a  perennial, 
it  is  seldom  able  to  maintain  a  stand  for  more  than  three 
or  four  years,  when  it  must  be  re-seeded.  Red  clover  is 
usually  followed  by  a  grain  crop  before  clover  is  again 
grown. 

6.     Other  Types  of  Clover 

None  of  the  other  clovers  compare  with  red  clover 
in  their  general  value  to  the  northern  and  central  farms. 
Yet  a  few  other  types  are  of  great  importance  in  other 
sections. 

White  clover. — White  clover  is  well  known  over  most 
of  the  red-clover  region.  It  differs  in  its  manner  of  growth 
from  red  clover,  being  of  a  creeping  habit,  and  therefore 
not  well  adapted  to  use  as  a  hay  crop.  White  clover  is 
very  hardy,  and  will  often  work  its  way  into  a  pasture  with- 
out seeding,  the  seeds  being  carried  by  winds  and  the  birds. 
It  makes  an  excellent  pasture  grass,  and  is  also  often  used 
in  lawn  mixtures. 

Alsike  clover. — Alsike  clover  is  named  from  a  town 
in  Sweden,  where  it  is  said  to  have  originated.  It  resem- 
bles red  clover  but  is  of  a  finer,  more  delicate  type,  and 
therefore  does  not  yield  so  well.  While  red  clover  will 
produce  two  crops  each  season,  alsike  clover  will  grow 
but  one.    This  clover  is  especially  suited  to  wet  heavy  soil 


THE  CLOVERS  131 

which  will  not  grow  red  clover,  and  in  such  regions  proves 
a  valuable  crop. 

Crimson  clover. — ^This  clover,  whose  cultural  methods 
are  similar  to  those  of  red  clover,  differs  from  the  other 
clovers  in  being  an  annual.  It  is  a  relatively  new  crop, 
having  recently  been  brought  to  this  country  from  Europe. 
It  is  grown  chiefly  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  United 
States,  where  it  assumes  the  same  importance  that  red 
clover  has  farther  north.  Crimson  clover  does  not  demand 
so  rich  a  soil  as  red  clover  or  alfalfa,  but  is  of  great  im- 
portance in  the  southeast  and  southwest  of  the  United 
States. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  How  many  acres  of  red  clover  are  now  growing  on 
your  father's  farm?  Make  a  comparison  for  all  the  farms 
represented  in  the  school.  What  other  legumes  are  raised 
at  your  home?  Is  the  red  clover  grown  alone,  or  with 
timothy  ? 

2.  How  long  have  your  father's  clover-fields  been 
down?  Ask  your  father  whether  red  clover  that  has  been 
down  two  or  three  years  begins  to  die  out?  What  is  the 
oldest  field  of  red  clover  in  the  vicinity? 

3.  Secure  several  samples  of  red-clover  seed.  These 
may  be  taken  from  the  supply  intended  for  sowing,  or  from 
the  barn  floor  where  red  clover  is  fed.  Study  these  sam- 
ples with  reference  to  the  qualities  named  in  the  text  for 
clover  seed.  What  proportion  of  the  seed  turns  out  to  be 
weed  seed  instead  of  clover?  Can  you  identify  the  dif- 
ferent weeds  represented? 

4.  Make  a  seed  tester  out  of  two  plates  and  pieces  of 
Canton  flannel.  Place  one  hundred  seeds  of  red  clover  be- 
tween the  plates,  dampen  the  cloth  and  keep  warm  for  four 
or  five  days.  How  many  of  the  seeds  have  sprouted  ?  What 
percentage  failed  to  grow?  Is  it  probable  that  some  of  the 
seeds  were  "hard"  ? 

5.  If  red-clover  seed  such  as  you  tested  is  selling  at 
eight  dollars  a  bushel,  what  would  the  good  seed  in  your 
sample  really  cost  the  purchaser?     Would  a  farmer  better 


132  AGRICULTURE 

.pay  nine  dollars  a  bushel  for  pure  seed,  ninety-five  per 
cent,  of  which  will  grow,  or  seven  dollars  a  bushel  for  dirty 
seed,  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  which  will  grow?  Have  in 
mind  also  the  fact  that  the  farmer  can  not  afford  to  sow 
weed  seed  with  his  clover.  Will  it  pay  to  test  the  red- 
clover  seed  before  planting? 

6.  Secure  specimen  plants  and  samples  of  seeds  of  all 
the  other  clovers  to  be  found  in  your  region.  Learn  to 
identify  both  plant  and  seed. 


CHAPTER  VII 
ALFALFA 

L    The  Alfalfa  Plant 

FIRST  of  all  secure,  if  possible,  samples  of  growing 
alfalfa  plants.  Go  into  the  field  and  dig  up  several 
plants  of  different  sizes,  one  year  old,  two  years  old,  and 
three  years  old.  Try  to  obtain  the  entire:  root  system  of  at 
least  one  good-sized  plant.  This  may  be  hard  to  do,  as  the 
roots  usually  extend  from  eight  to  ten  feet  down  in  the 
soil,  and  under  favorable  conditions  more  than  twice  this 
depth. 

Study  of  the  alfalfa  plant. — Study  the  plant,  noting 
the  mode  of  branching,  the  system  of  leaves,  the  method  of 
flowering,  and  the  arrangement  of  seeds  and  pods.  Look 
for  the  tubercles  on  the  roots.  These  are  most  plentiful  in 
the  spring.  Later  in  the  season  they  fall  off  and  decay  in 
the  soil.  If  the  roots  are  pulled  up  roughly,  the  nodules 
will  be  stripped  off  and  remain  in  the  ground.  The  indi- 
vidual bacteria  can  not  be  seen  except  with  a  powerful  mi- 
croscope. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  How  many  cuttings  to  the  season  are  made  of 
alfalfa?    How  many  of  clover?    Of  timothy? 

2.  What  is  the  average  cutting  of  alfalfa  to  the  acre? 
Of  clover?  Of  timothy?  Compare,  then,  the  total  crop 
for  the  season  of  the  three  kinds  of  forage? 

3.  What  is  the  market  value  of  alfalfa  per  ton?  Of 
clover?  Of  timothy?  Compare  the  value  per  acre  for  feed- 
ing purposes  of  each  of  the  three  hay  crops. 

133 


134  AGRICULTURE 

^  4.  What  does  it  cost  to  produce  an  acre  of  alfalfa  and 
harvest  it?  Of  clover?  Of  timothy?  Find  which  is  the 
most  profitable  crop  based  on  market  value  of  hay.  (It 
must,  however,  be  taken  into  account  that  alfalfa  is  of 
greatest  value  in  renewing  the  soil.) 

2.    The  Growing  of  Alfalfa 

Alfalfa  is  one  of  the  oldest  plants  known.  It  was 
known  in  Greece  five  hundred  years  B.  C.,  and  raised  in 
England  before  Columbus  discovered  America.  It  has  been 
known  in  this  country  for  more  than  a  century,  but  only 
recently  has  it  become  of  any  great  importance  as  a  farm 
crop.  And  even  yet,  its  value  is  but  little  understood,  and 
the  methods  of  its  growth  are  not  generally  known. 

Acreage  of  alfalfa. — -At  present  barely  one-tenth  as 
many  acres  are  devoted  to  alfalfa  as  to  clover  and  tim- 
othy, and  one-ninth  as  many  as  are  put  in  wheat.  We  have 
twenty  acres  in  com  to  every  acre  in  alfalfa.  Yet  the 
amount  of  land  devoted  to  alfalfa  is  increasing  every  year, 
and  it  will  soon  become  one  of  our  principal  forage  crops. 

The  alfalfa  region. — The  alfalfa  region  of  the  United 
States  at  present  lies  principally  west  of  the  Mississippi 
River.  Out  of  about  five  million  acres  of  alfalfa  raised  in 
the  entire  country,  Kansas  grows  one  million  acres,  or  one- 
fifth  of  the  crop. 

Alfalfa  is  especially  adapted  to  dry  soils  and  climates, 
and  is  therefore  of  the  greatest  value  in  the  semi-arid  re- 
gions of  the  West.  Utah,  Arizona,  Colorado,  Idaho  and 
other  western  states  are  using  alfalfa  to  make  fertile  many 
acres  of  soil  almost  barren  for  other  crops. 

The  great  corn  belt  states  are  admirably  adapted  to  the 
raising  of  alfalfa,  but  have  as  yet  done  little  with  it.  For 
example,  the  following  are  the  ranks  of  these  states  in  the 
production  of  alfalfa  in  the  United  States:     Ohio,  nine- 


ALFALFA 


135 


teenth;  Iowa,  twentieth;  Kentucky,  twenty-first;  Illinois, 
twenty-second ;  Wisconsin,  twenty-third ;  Indiana,  twenty- 
fourth,  and  Michigan,  twenty-ninth. 


Comparison  of  corn  and  alfalfa  roots,  showing  why  alfalfa  is  a 
drought  resister. 


3.     Alfalfa  as  Forage  for  Stock 

Alfalfa  is  the  most  valuable  forage  crop  known  for 
the  feeding  of  most  kinds  of  farm  animals.  Like 
clover,  it  contains  a  high  degree  of  that  most  important  ele- 
ment of  food,  protein,  which  goes  to  make  both  bone  and 
muscle.    With  such  forage  as  timothy,  corn,  stover,  or  straw 


136  AGRICULTURE 

.fed  to  stock,  protein  must  be  supplied  in  the  form  of  bran, 
or  some  other  such  feed.  Alfalfa  serves  the  same  purpose, 
and  is  much  cheaper  to  produce. 

Feeding  value  of  alfalfa. — The  following  table  shows 
the  feeding  vakie  of  eight  different  kinds  of  feed,  based 
on  the  digestible  nutrient  material  in  each :  (Farmers*  Bul- 
letin, 339.  These  figures  are  only  relative,  since  prices  vary 
from  year  to  year.) 

Vahte  Value 

Feed                                per  ton  Feed                               per  ton 

Green    alfalfa $  7.00       Timothy   hay $  9.00 

Green   c!over 5.96       Cow-pea  hay 19.76 

Alfalfa    hay 20.16       Wheat    bran ^ 22.80 

Clover   hay 14.12       Shelled    corn   20.16 

It  is  seen  that  the  feeding  value  of  alfalfa  hay  is  more 
than  double  that  of  timothy.  It  is  almost  equal  to  wheat 
bran,  and  just  equal  to  shelled  corn.  Alfalfa  has  an  addi- 
tional value  for  feeding  stock  because  it. is  highly  palatable 
to  almost  every  farm  animal,  even  to  poultry  and  hogs. 

Bran  costs  an  average  of  about  twenty  dollars  a  ton ; 
to  raise  alfalfa  hay  costs  an  average  of  about  five  dollars  a 
ton.  Why  not  grozv  the  protein  needed  by  the  farm  animals 
instead  of  buying  it?  As  farmers  learn  more  of  the  value 
of  alfalfa  this  is  what  they  will  do. 

4.    Alfalfa  as  a  Renewer  of  the  Soil 

Alfalfa  is  probably  the  best  of  the  legumes  as  a  soil 
renewer.  The  bacteria  which  grow  in  the  root  tubercle  are 
able  to  take  the  nitrogen  directly  from  the  air  and  add  it  to 
the  soil  in  such  form  that  it  can  be  used  by  other  crops. 
The  deep  rooting  system  of  the  alfalfa  plant  also  enables  it  to 
bring  other  minerals  from  the  lower  layers  of  the  soil,  de- 
positing them  near  the  surface  where  other  plants  can  use 
them.    The  generous  roots  add  much  humus  to  the  soil. 


ALFALFA 


137 


In  Colorado,  Nebraska  and  Wyoming,  farmers  have 
found  that  almost  double  the  yield  of  grain  is  produced 
from  the  same  fields  after  they  have  been  in  alfalfa  for  sev- 


Examining  the  tubercles  on  alfalfa  roots  in  a  southern  field. 

eral  years.  Even  greater  results  have  been  experienced  in 
the  South  in  the  yield  of  cotton  crops  that  have  followed 
alfalfa. 

Alfalfa  can  be  used  in  the  same  way  throughout  the 
corn  region  to  improve  the  soil  for  other  crops.  Besides 
being  one  of  the  cheapest  and  most  effective  means  known 
of  restoring  certain  elements  to  worn  soil,  it  is  also  a  crop 


138 


AGRICULTURE 


;jvhich  is  in  itself  more  profitable  than  almost  any  other 
crop  that  can  be  raised. 

5.    Raising  the  Crop 

Soil   requirements   for   alfalfa. — It    is   especially   im- 
portant in  raising  alfalfa  that  soil  naturally  wet  shall  be 


School  cbildreu  iu  Cook  Couuty,  llliuois,  studyiug  the  lelaliou 
of  alfalfa  to  com  growing. 

well  drained.  While  alfalfa  requires  much  moisture  in 
growing,  it  will  not  stand  the  dampness  of  undrained  soils. 
If  submerged  with  water  it  will  quickly  die. 

In  heavy  damp  soil  there  is  also  likely  to  be  more  acid 
than  is  good  for  the  alfalfa  plant.  Before  sowing  alfalfa  it 
is,  therefore,  best  to  test  the  soil  for  acid.  This  can  easily 
be  done  by  taking  a  little  of  the  soil  when  damp  and  plac- 


ALFALFA 


139 


ing  it  upon  blue  litmus  paper.      If  the  paper  turns  to  a 
pink  color  it  indicates  the  presence  of  acid,  and  the  soil 


An  alfalfa  plant  several  years  old.     Note  the  generous  root 
system  and  the  size  of  the  plant. 


should  then  have  an  application  of  lime  to  counteract  the 
acid. 


140  AGRICULTURE 

/.  Starting  alfalfa. — If  proper  methods  are  used  it  should 
be  no  harder  to  start  alfalfa  than  clover.  First  of  all,  the 
seed  must  be  most  carefully  selected,  and  should  be  tested 
before  sowing.  This  can  easily  be  done  by  means  of  a 
home-made  tester,  as  in  the  case  of  clover. 

Particularly  should  the  seed  be  free  from  all  noxious 
weeds  or  other  impurities.  For  weeds  are  among  the  worst 
enemies  of  alfalfa.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  the  alfalfa 
crop  is  completely  killed  out  of  certain  fields  in  a  few  years 
by  the  increase  of  weeds. 

The  seed  bed  should  be  more  carefully  prepared  than 
for  almost  any  other  farm  crop.  After  plowing  it  must 
be  harrowed  so  thoroughly  as  to  pack  it  well  and  leave  a 
fine  mulch  on  top.  If  the  seed  bed  can  be  prepared  some 
time  ahead  of  the  sowing  so  as  to  give  an  opportunity  for 
several  harrowings  so  much  the  better.  The  seeding  may 
be  done  either  broadcast  or  with  a  drill.  It  has  been  found 
best  in  most  parts  of  the  country  not  to  sow  alfalfa  with  a 
nurse  crop,  since  the  nurse  crop  deprives  the  young  alfalfa 
plants  of  moisture,  nourishment  and  light.  It  is  of  great 
advantage  to  manure  the  field  before  seeding  to  alfalfa. 

Inoculating  the  soil. — It  is  usually  best  to  inoculate 
the  soil  before  sowing  alfalfa.  This  means  to  put  into  the 
soil  some  of  the  bacteria  which  inhabit  the  root  nodules. 
Almost  any  soil  suitable  for  alfalfa  has  some  of  these  bac- 
teria to  begin  with,  so  that  alfalfa  may  often  be  started 
without  inoculation.  But  where  the  supply  of  bacteria  is 
very  small,  and  where  the  soil  is  poor  it  will  pay  to  inocu- 
late. This  may  easily  be  accomplished  by  gathering  the  sur- 
face soil  from  a  field  on  which  alfalfa  has  been  raised,  and 
scattering  it  at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  to  five  hundred 
pounds  to  the  acre  over  the  field  to  be  sown. 

Similar  results  can  be  had  by  gathering  soil  in  which 
sweet  clover  so  commonly  found  along  the  roadsides  has 


ALFALFA  141 

been  growing.  Care  must  be  taken  in  gathering  and  scat- 
tering the  soil  not  to  allow  it  to  be  exposed  to  sunlight,  as 
this  will  kill  the  bacteria.  It  is  better  therefore  to  secure 
the  soil  and  spread  it  over  the  new  field  on  cloudy  days 
or  in  the  late  evening.  The  alfalfa  seed  should  be  sown 
immediately  and  harrowed  in  so  that  the  bacteria  may  be 
covered,  and  be  thus  secure  from  the  sunlight. 

Time  for  seeding. — Late  summer  has  been  found  the 
best  time  for  seeding  alfalfa  in  the  East  and  the  South,  while 
in  the  West  spring  seeding  is  the  rule.  Spring  seeding  has 
also  been  found  to  work  better  in  Minnesota,  Wisconsin 
and  the  Dakotas.  No  general  rule  as  to  the  time  of  seed- 
ing can,  however,  be  given.  The  chief  thing  necessary  is 
to  seed  as  long  as  possible  before  the  time  of  year  that  will 
be  hardest  on  the  plants.  In  the  North  this  requires  spring 
or  early  summer  seeding  in  order  that  the  plants  may  get 
sufficient  growth  before  freezing  to  withstand  the  winter. 
Alfalfa  plants  less  than  six  inches  high  do  not  ordinarily 
live  well  through  the  hard  northern  winters. 

In  some  regions  there  is  trouble  in  getting  the  plants 
started  before  drought  comes  on  to  check  their  growth. 
Throughout  the  corn  belt  late  summer  seeding  should  uS' 
ually  be  practised.  Alfalfa  sown  during  August  and  the 
first  week  of  September  will  have  the  best  chance  through- 
out this  region. 

6.     Harvesting  the  Crop 

Time  for  cutting. — Alfalfa  makes  the  best  hay  if  cut 
while  in  early  bloom.  A  better  means  of  determining  the 
time  for  cutting  is,  however,  to  watch  the  start  of  the  new 
shoots  from  the  base  of  the  plant.  These  shoots  make  the 
growth  for  the  succeeding  crop.  When  they  are  from  one 
to  two  inches  in  length  is  the  best  time  to  harvest.  In  this 
way  the  new  growth  goes  on  without  interruption. 


142 


AGRICULTURE 


If  the  cutting  takes  place  much  earlier  than  this,  there 
is  a  loss  of  growing  time  in  waiting  for  the  new  shoots  to 
develop.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  cutting  is  delayed  until 
these  shoots  are  too  long,  the  mower  will  clip  them  off  and 
they  must  begin  all  over  again,  thus  delaying  the  next  crop. 
Usually  it  is  possible  to  secure  three  cuttings  of  alfalfa  in 
the  corn  region  and  as  many  as  eight,  ten  or  even  twelve  in 


Side  delivery  rsilier  iu  uu  uifulfa   lield,  ^leldiug  two  U;iis  to 
tlie  acre  on  second  cutting. 

some  of  the  irrigated  regions  of  the  West.  It  is  evident 
that  if  the  greatest  number  of  cuttings  is  to  be  secured 
each  crop  must  be  cut  as  soon  as  it  is  ready  in  order  to  let 
the  next  get  properly  started. 

Handling  the.  hay. — Alfalfa,  like  clover,  should  be 
harvested  so  that  the  hay  may  reach  the  barn  or  stack  with 
the  least  possible  amount  of  handling  or  exposure  to  the 
weather.    The  alfalfa  leaves  contain  a  large  proportion  of 


ALFALFA  143 

the  food  value  of  the  plant,  and  are  easily  crumbled  and 
lost  if  the  hay  gets  too  dry. 

Probably  the  best  plan  is  to  cock  the  hay  when  the  stems 
are  about  half  dry,  stacking  it  when  moisture  no  longer 
shows  as  a  wisp  of  the  plant  is  twisted  by  the  finger.  In 
regions  where  frequent  rains  are  the  rule  during  the  hay- 
ing season,  it  pays  to  have  haycock  covers  consisting  of 
squares  of  muslin  to  the  corners  of  which  weights  are  at- 
tached, or  pins  to  thrust  into  the  hay  or  the  ground. 

7.    Enemies  of  Alfalfa 

Weed  enemies. — ^Undoubtedly  weeds  are  the  worst 
enemies  of  alfalfa  in  most  parts  of  the  country.  This  is 
particularly  true  throughout  the  West  and  Southwest. 
Among  the  weed  enemies  are  zvitch-grass,  crab-grass  in  the 
West,  blue-grass  and  foxtail  throughout  the  Middle  West 
and  the  barleys  in  the  far  West.  Cultivation  with  the 
spring-tooth  harrow  or  disk  is  the  best  means  of  killing 
most  of  the  weeds. 

An  especially  troublesome  weed  among  alfalfa  is  dodder. 
Dodder  is  a  plant  which  twines  itself  about  the  alfalfa  seed- 
lings, soon  attaching  its  threadlike  stems  firmly  to  the 
alfalfa  plant.  The  dodder  stem  then  withers  away  near 
the  ground  and  the  dodder  continues  to  live  as  a  parasite 
on  the  alfalfa.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  exterminate  dodder 
when  it  has  once  secured  a  foothold  in  an  alfalfa  field. 
Turning  sheep  into  the  field  to  graze  is  one  remedy  for  this 
pest.  Another  is  to  cpt  the  alfalfa  very  low  or  even  remove 
it  entirely  on  any  spots  in  the  field  where  dodder  starts. 

Insect  enemies. — Alfalfa  does  not  have  so  wide  a 
range  of  insect  enemies  as  some  of  the  other  farm  plants. 
The  alfalfa  weevil  and  grasshoppers  are  probably  the  worst 


r      } 


A  six-weeks-old  field  of  alfalfa  iu  North  Dakota. 


Alfalfa  curing  under  cover. 


ALFALFA  145 

enemies  of  this  kind,  particularly  in  the  regions  of  the 
West.  It  has  been  found  that  disking  an  alfalfa  field  late 
in  the  fall  in  the  northern  states  and  mid-winter  in  southern 
states  exposes  the  weevil  and  grasshopper  young  to  freez- 
ing and  the  attacks  of  birds,  and  thus  reduces  their  number. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  How  many  acres  of  alfalfa  are  grown  on  each  farm 
represented  in  the  school?  How  long  has  alfalfa  been 
raised  in  the  vicinity?  Why  is  not  more  grown,  since  it  is 
one  of  the  most  profitable  crops  known? 

2.  Out  of  one  hundred  successful  alfalfa  growers  in 
the  corn  belt,  eighty-five  testified  that  they  had  planted 
according  to  the  following  program :  Manured  the  ground, 
fall  plowed,  summer  fallowed  the  next  season  (surface 
cultivated  without  crop),  limed,  inoculated,  seeded  about 
August  first.  Make  an  inquiry  among  the  alfalfa  growers 
in  your  vicinity.  How  many  did  all  these  things?  Which 
did  they  omit,  if  any?    How  did  they  succeed? 

3.  Collect  samples  of  field  soil  taken  several  inches  be- 
low the  surface  from  each  of  the  farms  represented  in  the 
school.  Moisten  the  soil,  roll  it  into  a  ball,  cut  the  ball 
into  halves,  and  place  between  the  halves  a  piece  of  litmus 
paper,  leaving  it  a  few  moments.  Does  it  turn  pink?  If 
so,  this  is  an  indication  of  acid  or  sour  condition  of  the 
soil.  What'  treatment  should  an  acid  soil  receive  before 
being  sown  to  alfalfa? 

4.  If  there  is  no  alfalfa  grown  on  your  father's  farm, 
talk  with  him  about  the  crop,  and  join  with  him  in  starting 
a  small  field.  Would  your  field  need  liming?  Would  you 
know  where  to  secure  soil  for  inoculating?  If  there  is  no 
alfalfa  near,  is  there  not  sweet  clover  along  the  roadside? 


CHAPTER    VIII 
OTHER  LEGUMES 

WHILE  red  clover  and  alfalfa  are  the  most  important 
leguminous  plants  for  large  portions  of  the  United 
States,  there  are  several  other  legumes  that  deserve  attention. 
Chief  among  these  are  the  cow-pea,  grown  chiefly  in  the 
South ;  the  vetches,  the  soy-bean,  the  peanut  field  beans  and 
peas,  and  several  others  of  lesser  importance.  These  are  pro- 
duced (1)  for  forage,  (2)  for  soil  renovation,  and  (3)  for 
their  seeds. 

1.     The  Cow-pea 

The  cow-pea  is  to  the  South  what  red  clover  and  alfalfa 
are  to  the  West  and  North.  It  grows  successfully  on  almost 
any  kind  of  soil  found  in  the  cotton  belt,  and  its  cultiva- 
tion is  being  rapidly  extended  throughout  this  region. 

The  plant. — The  cow-pea  was  but  recently  introduced 
into  this  country,  coming  from  China.  The  plant  resem- 
bles the  ordinary  garden  bean  in  appearance  and  manner  of 
growth.  It  reaches  a  height  of  from  one  to  nearly  five 
feet.  The  smaller  varieties  stand  nearly  erect,  the  taller 
varieties  spreading  out  vine-like  on  the  ground. 

The  leaves  are  broad,  and  grow  in  clusters  of  three. 
The  flowers  resemble  those  of  the  garden  pea,  and  are 
greenish-yellow  in  color.  The  pods,  which  are  cylindrical 
in  shape,  grow  from  two  to  some  seven  inches  in  length. 
The  roots,  which  penetrate  deeply  into  the  soil,  bear  tuber- 
cles, which  are  the  home  of  nitrogen-gathering  bacteria. 

146 


Tlie  cow-pea. 


148  AGRICULTURE 

Cow-peas  as  forage. — Cow-peas,  when  harvested  for 
hay,  yield  from  two  to  three  tons  to  the  acre.  The  feed- 
ing value  of  cow-pea  hay  is  fully  equal  to  that  of  red  clover, 
and  nearly  equal  to  alfalfa  or  wheat  bran.  It  has  been 
found  a  better  forage  feed  for  working  animals  in  the  South 
than  grass  hay.  It  is  rich  in  protein,  and  therefore  an  ac- 
ceptable substitute  for  corn  or  cottonseed-meal  in  the  fat- 
tening of  stock. 

Since  the  cow-pea  is  an  annual,  it  does  not  lend  itself  to 
the  making  of  permanent  meadows  or  pastures  as  does 
alfalfa.  Cow-peas  sowed  in  corn  are  profitably  used  as  pas- 
turage for  hogs,  the  gain  in  weight  being  in  some  cases 
more  than  twice  as  fast  with  a  mixed  feed  of  cow-peas  and 
corn  as  when  corn  alone  is  fed.  Cattle  also  do  well  on  a 
pasturage  of  cow-peas.  Bloating  is  likely  to  occur,  how- 
ever,  if  grazing  is  allowed  when  the  cow-peas  are  wet. 

The  cow-pea  as  a  soil  renovator. — The  cow-pea  im- 
proves the  soil  in  two  ways:  (1)  like  other  legumes,  it  is 
able  through  its  root  bacteria  to  gather  nitrogen  from  the 
air  and  transfer  it  to  the  soil;  and  (2)  its  many  roots, 
coarse  stubble  and  stems,  especially  when  the  latter  are 
plowed  under  as  green  manure,  add  much  humus  to  the 
soil,  making  it  more  porous. 

In  many  parts  of  the  South  cow-peas  are  coming  to  be 
largely  used  in  crop  rotation  with  cotton  the  principal  crop. 
The  field  is  planted  to  cotton  either  two  or  three  years  in 
succession,  then  a  crop  of  corn  and  cow-peas  grown,  and 
then  a  return  to  cotton.  In  Missouri,  Arkansas,  Tennessee, 
Alabama  and  other  states  of  this  region,  cow-peas  are  being 
successfully  used  in  rotation  with  wheat  and  oats.  An  in- 
crease of  from  fifty  to  more  than  one  hundred  per  cent,  in 
other  crops  following  cow-peas  is  not  uncommon. 


Hairy  vetcli. 


150  AGRICULTURE 

2.     The  Vetches 

The  vetches  are  another  group  of  legumes,  grown  most 
extensively  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  less  commonly  in  the  South, 
and  hardly  at  all  in  the  North.  Although  more  than  one 
hundred  different  varieties  of  vetch  are  known,  but  two  are 
commonly  grown  in  the  United  States,  common  vetch  and 
hairy  vetch. 

Common  vetch. — Common  vetch  is  an  annual,  closely 
resembling  the  garden  pea.  Its  stems  are  very  slender, 
and  grow  from  three  to  five  feet  or  more  in  length.  There 
are  many  different  varieties  of  common  vetch,  of  which  the 
gray-seeded  is  most  commonly  grown  in  this  country. 

Low  temperatures  are  fatal  to  common  vetch ;  it  can  not 
be  successfully  raised  in  regions  where  the  thermometer 
goes  lower  than  about  fifteen  degrees  Fahrenheit.  Since  the 
vetches  have  a  long  weak  stem,  they  are  usually  planted 
with  a  crop  of  small  grain  to  support  them.  Common  vetch 
is  largely  grown  for  hay  in  the  extreme  West,  where  it  is 
sown  in  the  fall  with  wheat  or  oats.  In  the  South,  oats, 
rye  or  barley  often  are  grown  with  vetch. 

Hairy  vetch. — Hairy  vetch  is  much  more  hardy  than 
common  vetch,  and  may  be  raised  in  almost  any  portion 
of  the  United  States.  It  finds  its  greatest  use  in  supplying 
a  legume  for  forage  and  improving  the  soil  where  red  clover 
or  alfalfa  does  not  succeed,  or  where  a  short  rotation  crop 
is  desired. 

Hairy  vetch  has  great  power  to  resist  drought,  and 
does  well  on  a  sandy  soil.  It  will  also  thrive  on  a  soil  so 
alkaline  that  most  legumes  refuse  to  grow  on  it. 

3.     Soy-Beans 

Soy-beans  are  native  to  Asia,  where  they  have  been 
grown  from  time  immemorial.     In  China,  India  and  Japan, 


Root  of  a  soy-bean,  sliowiug  bacteriu-iuliabited  tubercles. 


152  AGRICULTURE 

§ome  two  hundred  varieties  are  cultivated  for  human  food, 
furnishing  a  staple  article  of  diet  in  many  regions.  They 
have  not  proved  palatable  to  Americans,  however,  and  are 
raised  in  this  country  chiefly  as  a  forage  crop. 

Where  red  clover  or  alfalfa  can  be  successfully  grown, 
soy-beans  will  have  little  place,  since  they  are  less  profitable. 
They  are  especially  adapted  to  the  cotton  belt,  however, 
and  to  the  southern  portion  of  the  corn  belt.  Since  soy- 
beans are  drought  resistant,  they  also  grow  well  in  the  semi- 
arid  regions  of  the  West.  They  have  as  yet  made  little 
headway  as  a  crop  in  this  region  because  of  the  ravages  of 
the  rabbits,  which  find  their  foliage  a  savory  delicacy. 

Feeding  value. — The  soy-bean  has  as  great  feeding 
value  for  stock  as  alfalfa,  and  is  worth  more  than  cotton- 
seed-meal as  a  food  for  hogs,  sheep  or  cattle.  The  straw, 
after  all  the  grain  has  been  removed,  is  as  valuable  as  tim- 
othy hay,  and  even  more  palatable  to  most  farm  animals. 

Like  other  legumes,  the  soy-bean  adds  to  the  fertility 
of  the  soil  in  which  it  grows,  and  therefore  possesses  a 
double  value  to  the  farmer. 

4.     The  Peanut 

Peanuts  are  grown  in  this  country  chiefly  in  the  south 
Atlantic  region.  The  plant  produces  stems  from  one  to  two 
and  one-half  feet  in  length.  It  has  rather  small  leaves, 
growing  three  in  a  cluster.  After  flowering,  the  stems  pen- 
etrate into  the  soil,  where  the  pods  or  nuts  are  produced  be- 
neath the  surface. 

Uses  of  peanuts. — Peanuts  are  produced  largely  for 
their  use  as  human  food.  Besides  the  roasted  nuts  sold  on 
nearly  every  street  corner,  large  quantities  are  made  into 
peanut  butter,  oil,  etc.  The  vines  make  an  excellent  forage 
for  stock.  Certain  varieties  are  grown  in  the  South  ex- 
clusively as  forage  for  hogs. 


•   OTHER  LEGUMES  153 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Secure  if  possible  a  complete  specimen  of  each  of 
the  legumes  described  in  the  chapter.  If  they  are  not  grown 
in  your  vicinity,  write  your  agricultural  college  as  to  how 
they  may  be  obtained.  Study  each  different  plant,  and  learn 
to  identify  it. 

2.  Secure  seed  of  each  of  the  legumes  discussed. 
Learn  to  identify  the  seed.  Plant  in  the  school  garden  or 
at  home,  and  watch  the  development  of  the  plant. 

3.  Which  of  these  legumes  could  be  grown  in  your 
region  ?  Would  they  be  profitable  ?  Talk  with  your  father 
about  this.  If  they  would  not  pay,  is  it  because  of  unfa- 
vorable climate,  unsuitable  soil,  or  because  more  profit- 
able legumes  can  be  grown?  If  you  are  not  sure  on  any 
of  these  points,  write  your  agricultural  college. 


CHAPTER   IX 
MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

ALTHOUGH  meadows  and  pastures  claim  more  than 
half  of  all  the  farm  land  of  the  United  States,  they  re- 
ceive far  less  attention  than  any  other  part  of  the  farm. 
About  one-fourth  of  the  acreage  from  which  hay  is  harvested 
is  native  wild  meadow ;  this  is  chiefly  located  in  the  newer 
portions  of  the  West.  Pastures  are  often  used  from  year  to 
year  with  no  care  taken  to  improve  them.  Yet  in  many  cases 
meadows  and  pastures  well  repay  the  time  and  expense  nec- 
essary to  make  them  more  productive. 

1.     Meadows 

Requirements  of  a  meadow. — Meadows  are  commonly 
used  for  a  double  purpose — ^the  production  of  hay,  and 
providing  the  rotation  of  crops  required  to  maintain  the 
fertility  of  the  soil.  It  is  necessary  therefore  to  select  such 
plants  for  the  meadow  as  will  serve  both  of  these  ends. 
This  is  possible  with  our  wide  range  of  grasses  and  legumes 
from  which  to  choose. 

Meadow  plants  should  possess  the  following  qualities: 
(1)  yield  well;  (2)  be  palatable;  (3)  tend  to  improve  the 
soil ;  (4)  grow  strong  and  thick  enough  to  keep  down  the 
weeds;  (5)  produce  an  even  firm  sod  free  from  high  tufts 
or  bunches. 

The  surface  of  the  meadow  should  be  smooth  and  free 
from  obstructions  that  will  interfere  with  the  harvesting  of 
the  hay  crop. 

154 


MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 


155 


Meadow  grasses  and  legumes. — Most  of  our  meadows 
are  mixtures  of  grasses,  or  of  grasses  with  legumes.  Al- 
falfa seems  to  thrive  best  alone,  but  most  meadow  plants 
gfow  well  in  company  with  some  other  variety.  Red  or 
crimson  clover  and  timothy,  for  example,  are  commonly 
found  growing  together. 

Several  advantages  come  from  planting  mixed  meadows : 
the  different  plants  draw  their  nourishment  from  various 


Two   profitable   western   industries — dairying   and   fruit-raising 
(Wasliington). 


depths  of  the  soil,  thus  using  its  full  strength  more  com- 
pletely and  increasing  the  yield  of  hay ;  mixtures  accommo- 
date themselves  to  peculiarities  of  seasons,  sometimes  one 
grass  and  sometimes  another  thriving  better ;  mixed  forage 
provides  variety  for  stock,  making  the  feed  more  palatable 
and  affording  a  wider  range  of  food  elements. 

When  hay  is  raised  for  market  instead  of  being  fed  on 
the  farm,  however,  it  is  often  best  to  devote  the  meadow 
to  one  plant  alone,  thus  producing  what  is  called  a  "pure" 


156  AGRICULTURE 

hay.  Timothy  is  the  favorite  meadow  grass  for  pure  hay, 
and  leads  the  market  in  all  the  great  hay-buying  centers. 
For  working  horses,  timothy  is  thought  by  many  to  be  su- 
perior to  clover  or  to  mixed  forage.  Pure  red  clover  or 
alfalfa  is  often  desired  for  fattening  stock. 

Meadow  mixtures. — The  mixture  to  be  used  in  seed- 
ing a  meadow  will  depend  on  the  climate,  soil  ,ail4  use  to 
which  the  forage  is  to  be  put.  Red  clover  and  timothy 
are  the  most  common  mixture  found  throughout  the  north- 
ern states,  the  proportion  of  seed  used  being  about  three- 
fifths  timothy  and  two-fifths  clover.  For  damp  undrained 
soil,  alsike  clover  is  substituted  for  red  clover,  or  mixed 
with  it.  A  very  common  mixture  for  average  soils  is  the 
following  amounts  per  acre: 

Timothy    15  pounds 

Red  clover 6 

Alsike  clover '. 4        " 

This  combination  will  produce  about  a  half-and-half  mix- 
ture of  hay  the  first  year,  with  timothy  predominating  the 
second  year,  and  pure  timothy  thereafter.  On  very  wet 
soils,  red-top  may  be  substituted  for  the  red  clover.  If  the 
soil  is  also  strong  in  acid,  it  is  best  to  omit  both  clovers, 
and  use  the  red-top  with  the  timothy. 

In  southern  regions,  where  clover,  alfalfa  and  timothy 
are  not  successful  in  meadows,  Johnson  grass  is  the  leading 
meadow  plant,  with  red-top  frequently  used  as  a  mixture. 
Brome-grass  is  important  in  many  regions  of  the  North- 
west. 

Care  of  meadows. — Under  our  system  of  rotation  of 
crops  meadows  are  usually  not  left  down  more  than  from 
two  to  four  years,  with  sometimes  a  year  or  two  of  pastur- 
ing before  the  sod  is  broken  up  for  other  crops.  Most  of 
our  meadows  are  therefore  new,  and  must  be  constantly 
remade. 


MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 


157 


One  of  the  chief  enemies  of  meadows  is  weeds.  They 
not  only  hinder  the  newly  seeded  meadow  from  getting  a 
good  start,  but  injure  the  value  of  hay,  reducing  the  mar- 
ket price.  If  allowed  to  grow  in  the  meadow  from  year 
to  year,  the  weeds  will  also  leave  the  soil  foul  for  the  crops 
that  follow  when  the  meadow  is  again  tilled. 


1 

W^Y 

i 
1 

/jM 

1 

^       ■   '    ■               •     ••' 

^ 

rfMi'MBflpi  >  *'*.  '"^.    z.. 

m 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^' 

Stacking  by  means  of  modern  machinery  saves  mucli  labor. 

It  is  no  uncommon  sight  to  see  meadows  grown  up  with 
ragweed,  dock,  smartweed,  foxtail  and  other  weed  pests. 
If  weeds  appear  after  the  crop  of  hay  has  been  harvested, 
they  should  not  be  allowed  to  go  to  seed,  but  should  be 
cut  down  with  the  mower  while  in  bloom. 

Spring  seeded  meadows  should  not  be  pastured  the  fol- 
lowing fall  even  if  the  plants  look  thriving.  This  is  sure 
to  reduce  the  vield  of  hav  the  followine  season,  and  tnav 
cause  the  plants  to  winter  kill  by  exposmg  the  roots.     The 


158  AGRICULTURE 

aftermath,  or  second  growth,  on  older  meadows  may  be 
pastured,  though  it  does  not  pay  to  feed  them  close.  Es- 
pecially should  new  meadows  not  be  trampled  by  stock 
while  wet. 

Permanent  meadows. — Many  meadows  are  located  on 
wet  ground,  or  on  soil  that  for  some  reason  is  not  cropped. 
In  other  cases  there  is  neglect  to  rotate  the  meadow  land 
with  the  remainder  of  the  fields  in  the  crop  series.  It  is 
often  found  that  meadows  that  are  thus  left  for  a  number 
of  years  have  a  tendency  to  "run  out." 

The  yield  of  hay  on  almost  any  meadow  left  without 
attention  for  several  years  decreases  from  one-third  to  one- 
half.  Weeds  begin  to  appear,  and  patches  here  and  there 
become  thin  or  die  out.  The  less  desirable  grasses  crowd 
out  the  better  ones.  Such  a  meadow  is  highly  unprofitable. 
If  tillable,  it  should  be  plowed  up  and  put  into  other  crops. 
If  not,  it  should  be  improved  and  its  quality  kept  up. 

It  is  not  hard  to  keep  permanent  meadows  in  a  state 
of  high  production,  but  it  requires  some  labor  and  expense. 
The  following  treatment  will  do  much  to  keep  permanent 
meadows  in  good  condition:  (1)  No  weeds  are  to  be  al- 
lowed to  go  to  seed;  (2)  if  the  soil  is  run  down,  the  field 
should  be  manured  or  other  fertilizer  used  on  it;  (3)  the 
soil  should  be  loosened  and  the  sod-bound  condition  relieved 
by  disking;  (4)  fresh  pure  grass  seed  should  be  scattered, 
especially  over  thin  or  weedy  places. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  What  proportion  of  your  father's  farm  is  in  mead- 
ow? In  pasture?  Compare  with  all  the  farms  represented 
in  the  school. 

2.  How  many  diflferent  meadows  on  your  home  farm  ? 
How  long  has  each  been  down  ?  Which  are  the  more  suc- 
cessful, the  older  or  the  newer  ones? 


MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES    .  159 

3.  Make  a  collection  of  the  different  meadow  plants 
produced  on  your  home  meadows.  How  many  different 
kinds  of  grasses  ?  How  many  legumes  ?  Do  you  find  any 
grasses  that  were  not  sown,  but  which  have  come  in  of 
their  own  accord?  Learn  to  identify  each  different  grass 
and  its  seed  in  your  meadows. 

4.  Make  a  collection  of  the  most  troublesome  weeds 
found  in  your  meadows.  Learn  to  identify  both  plants  and 
seeds.  How  many  farmers  in  your  region  cut  down  the 
weeds  on  their  meadows  to  keep  them  from  going  to  seed  ? 

5.  Go  out  into  some  meadow  near  by  and  examine  it 
for  the  five  qualities  specified  for  meadows.  What  was 
the  yield  per  acre  ?  Is  red-top  as  palatable  for  stock  as  tim- 
othy ?    As  clover  ?    Does  timothy  improve  the  soil  ? 

6.  Examine  some  meadow  just  seeded.  Identify  the 
plants.  Is  the  stand  good  ?  Is  the  field  free  from  weeds  ? 
Is  it  reasonably  smooth? 

7.  Are  there  any  old  meadows  near  at  hand  that  are 
run  down?  If  so,  what  do  they  need  to  improve  them? 
How  much  do  they  yield?  What  is  the  quality  of  the  hay 
produced  ? 

2.    Pastures 

More  improved  farm  land  is  devoted  to  pastures  than 
to  any  cultivated  crop.  Pasturage  supplies  the  greater  pro- 
portion of  the  feed  for  the  production  of  milk,  butter,  beef, 
mutton  and  wool  and  is  an  important  factor  in  the  produc- 
tion of  pork.  The  annual  value  of  our  pasturage  is  more 
than  that  of  any  other  crop  raised. 

Requirements  of  a  pasture. — Pastures  should  possess 
in  general  the  same  qualities  as  meadows.  They  should 
(1)  yield  well;  (2)  have  such  grasses  as  will  start  early 
and  continue  to  grow  late;  (3)  be  palatable  and  nutritious 
to  stock;  (4)  form  a  firm  tough  sod  that  will  stand  tramp- 
ling; (5)  have  fine  rather  than  coarse  grasses;  and  (6)  be 
free  from  weeds. 

Pasture  grasses  and  legumes. — The  best  meadow 
grasses  are  not  always  the  best  pasture  grasses.     For  ex- 

12 


160 


AGRICULTURE 


ample,  timothy,  the  queen  of  hay  grasses,  is  too  coarse 
when  used  alone  for  the  best  pasture  grass,  and  does  not 
stand  trampling  so  well  as  some  others. 

Pastures  should  usually  be  made  of  a  mixture  of  plants. 
This  will  provide  some  varieties  that  start  earlier  than 
others,  root  at  different  depths,  adjust  themselves  to  various 
kinds  of  seasons,  supply  variety  for  stock,  and  endure  longer 


Baling  bay  iu  tlie  West  directly  from  the  meadow. 

without  running  out.     Pasture  mixtures  should  contain  a 
much  greater  variety  than  meadow  mixtures. 

Pasture  mixtures. — Over  the  greater  portion  of  the 
United  States  north  of  the  cotton  belt  and  the  region  west  of 
the  Missouri  River,  Kentucky  blue-grass  and  white  clover 
are  the  most  common  and  valuable  pasture  grasses.  No  mat- 
ter what  mixture  is  sown,  one  or  both  of  these  grasses  is 
sure  soon  to  make  its  appearance,  and  gradually  force  most 
other  grasses  out.  When  blue-grass  and  white  clover  have 
taken  possesion  of  a  pasture  they  grow  reasonably  well  to- 
gether, though  in  some  seasons  one  of  them  will  predomi- 
nate, and  again  the  other. 


MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES  161 

Throughout  the  South,  Bermuda  grass  is  the  chief  pas- 
ture plant,  though  it  is  commonly  mixed  with  Rhodes  grass 
for  dry  soils  and  with  orchard  grass  for  wet  regions. 
Red-top  is  successful  on  wet  heavy  soil. 

For  starting  a  pasture  on  good  land  in  northern  regions, 
a  mixture  may  be  made  of  something  like  the  following 
proportions : 

Timothy 10  pounds 

Red  clover 3  " 

Alsike  clover 2  " 

White  clover 2  " 

Kentucky  blue-grass 3  " 

Brorne-grass    2  "  ^ 

Meadowr  fescue 2  " 

Orchard  grass 2  " 

This  will  make  sufficient  seed  for  one  acre.  If  the  pas- 
ture is  on  very  wet,  undrained  land,  the  red  clover  may 
be  omitted  and  red-top  substituted  in  its  stead.  Even  though 
timothy  will  soon  be  driven  out  by  blue-grass  and  white 
clover,  it  should  head  the  mixture  as  it  roots  more  quickly 
than  the  others,  and  acts  as  a  cover  while  the  slower 
grasses  are  getting  started. 

Care  of  pastures. — If  permanent  pastures  are  to  be 
kept  up  to  a  high  state  of  efficiency  they  demand  even 
more  care  than  meadows. 

On  fairly  good  soils,  pastures  do  not  usually  require 
manuring,  though  a  light  coat  of  manure  will  increase  the 
yield  of  any  pasture.  Nearly  every  pasture  needs  the  as- 
sistance of  a  mower  to  keep  down  the  weeds.  This  is  be- 
cause stock  do  not  find  most  weeds  palatable,  and  so  eat 
the  grass,  leaving  the  weeds  to  flourish.  Many  pastures 
are  thickly  sprinkled  with  weeds  which  not  only  rob  the 
soil   but   prevent    cattle    from    eating   the   grass    growing 


162  AGRICULTURE 

close  to  their  roots,  thus  adding  to  the  waste.  Weeds 
should  be  cut  from  the  pasture  each  year  before  they  bear 
seed. 

Grazing  stock  not  only  reject  the  weeds  for  the  more 
palatable  grass,  but  also  have  their  preference  among 
grasses.  All  have  noted  that  the  uplands  in  a  pasture  are 
grazed  close,  while  low  wet  areas  are  hardly  touched.  In 
many  cases  the  low  parts  of  a  pasture  are  almost  wasted, 
because  the  red-top  and  other  wet-soil  grasses  are  less 
palatable  than  the  blue-grass  and  clovers  which  thrive  only 
on  well  drained  soil.  Such  marshy  places  should  be  drained ; 
the  better  pasture  grasses  will  then  soon  take  possession. 

Pastures,  like  meadows,  may  become  sod-bound.  Almost 
any  old  pasture  can  be  improved  by  disking  or  cultivating 
with  a  knife-toothed  harrow.  When  this  is  done,  fresh 
grass  seed  should  be  scattered  on  thin  places,  or  a  desirable 
new  variety  added  to  the  plants  already  established. 

After  being  grazed,  pastures  grow  better  if  they  have 
a  rest  from  trampling  and  cropping.  It  is  therefore  best 
to  have  two  pastures,  using  them  alternately,  instead  of 
feeding  the  one  continuously  throughout  the  season.  Such 
an  arrangement  usually  requires  only  the  expense  of  a  par- 
tition fence,  which  the  increased  yield  from  the  pasture 
will  well  repay. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  What  is  the  age  of  the  different  pastures  on  your 
father's  farm?  What  is  the  predominating  grass?  What 
other  grasses  are  in  the  mixture  ? 

2.  Is  there  a  pasture  near  by  consisting  of  both  upland 
and  marsh  land?  If  so,  which  is  the  more  closely  cropped? 
Secure  samples  of  the  grass  from  each  part ;  what  grass 
predominates  in  each  case?  Would  it  not  pay  to  drain  the 
wet  portion? 


MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES  163 

3.  Make  a  study  of  the  pastures  represented  at  the 
school  for  the  weeds  growing  in  them.  What  proportion 
of  the  pastures  may  be  called  weedy  ?  What  weeds  predom- 
inate ?    Are  they  ever  mowed  ? 

4.  How  many  of  the  farmers  in  your  vicinity  follow 
the  plan  of  dividing  their  pasture,  so  that  the  one  part  may 
rest  while  the  other  is  being  used?  If  this  is  not  done  at 
your  home,  figure  the  cost  of  running  a  division  fence  so 
that  it  would  be  possible.  Talk  with  your  father  about  the 
cost  of  the  fence. 

5.  Are  any  of  the  pastures  in  your  region  ever  disked 
to  loosen  the  sod?  Is  new  seed  ever  sown  on  them?  Do 
you  think  any  of  them  are  sod-bound.     How  can  you  tell? 

6.  What  is  the  cost  per  rod  of  laying  field  tile  in  your 
vicinity?  Investigate  any  wet  areas  on  your  home  pasture 
where  the  grass  is  rejected  by  the  stock,  and  determine  how 
many  rods  of  drainage  would  be  required  to  make  the  soil 
tillable.  Suppose  draining  would  double  the  feeding  value 
of  such  an  area,  would  the  drain  pay  good  interest  on  its 
cost  ?    Figure  this  all  out  and  talk  with  your  father  about  it. 


PART  IL    HORTICULTURE 


CHAPTER  X 
THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

THE  plan  of  every  farm,  village  or  suburban  house 
should  include  a  good  vegetable  garden  to  supply  the 
home  table.  Not  only  are  vegetables  a  highly  necessary  food, 
but  they  are  much  more  palatable  when  taken  from  the 
garden  fresh  as  needed  instead  of  bought  in  a  market.  Nor 
is  a  well  stocked  market  easily  available  to  most  of  our 
homes.  Hence,  unless  the  home  raises  its  own  supply  of 
vegetables,  those  who  surround  the  table  are  likely  to  suffer 
from  lack  of  variety  and  the  absence  of  certain  food  qual- 
ities required  for  health.  Without  vegetables  the  table  is 
also  more  expensive  because  of  requiring  more  of  the  high 
priced  foods  such  as  meats  and  bread. 

The  vegetable  garden  can  be  made  the  most  profitable 
part  of  a  farm.  Half  an  acre  of  ground  planted  to  a  suit- 
able variety  of  garden  crops  will,  if  properly  cared  for, 
yield  over  one  hundred  dollars'  worth  of  vegetables  each 
season  for  the  family  table.  This  is  from  ten  to  twenty 
times  what  the  same  amount  of  ground  in  farm  crops  will 
produce.  Although  the  garden  requires  considerable  atten- 
tion, the  labor  demanded  is  not  great  compared  with  the 
returns  in  profits,  good  health  and  human  efficiency. 

165 


166  AGRICULTURE 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Measure  your  home  garden  and  find  the  amount  of 
space  devoted  to  vegetables  this  season.  Make  a  com- 
parison with  other  members  of  the  class.  Compute  the 
average  size  of  vegetable  gardens  for  the  neighborhood. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  different  vegetables  raised  in 
your  home  garden  this  year.  How  many  different  kinds? 
What  proportion  of  the  space  was  devoted  to  each?  Com- 
pare the  number  of  different  kinds  and  the  proportion  of 
each  with  the  garden  plan  shown  on  page  170. 

1.    Location  and  Soil 

The  location. — ^There  is  a  double  advantage  in  having 
the  vegetable  garden  near  the  house:  the  vegetables  can 
then  be  taken  from  the  soil  as  needed,  without  loss  of 
time;  and  spare  moments  free  from  other  work  or  chores 
can  be  given  to  the  care  of  the  garden.  Where  the  soil 
is  suitable  it  is  best  to  have  the  garden  only  a  few  rods 
from  the  kitchen  door. 

The  soil. — Most  vegetables  require  a  well  drained 
soil.  Ground  on  which  the  water  stands  after  a  rain  is  not 
adapted  to  garden  use.  A  slight  slope  to  the  south  and 
east  will  favor  the  early  maturing  of  the  crops. 

2.    Plan  of  the  Vegetable  Garden 

The  vegetable  garden  should  be  carefully  planned  be- 
fore time  to  begin  planting,  and  a  diagram  made  allotting 
to  each  crop  its  location  and  proper  amount  of  space.  This 
will  saye  time  in  putting  in  the  crop  and  insure  a  better 
arrangement. 

The  plan. — A  well  planned  garden  provides  (1)  for  a 
succession  of  crops  supplying  the  table  with  fresh  vegeta- 
bles from  early  spring  to  late  fall,  with  storage  varieties 
for  winter  use.     This  can  be  accomplished  by  selecting  a 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 


167 


reasonably  wide  range  of  crops  and  successive  plantings 
of  certain  kinds. 

(2)  The  right  proportion  of  space  should  be  allowed 
for  each  vegetable,  depending  on  the  tastes  of  the  family 
and  allowing  for  the  canning  of  a  supply  for  home  use.  As 
a  result  of  careless  planning  an  over-supply  of  one  vegeta- 
ble often  results  in  waste,  while  some  other  crop  runs  short. 


Members  of  National  Market  Garden  Club  packing  fresh  vege- 
tables for  parcel-post  shipment. 

(3)  The  crops  should  be  arranged  in  the  order  of  their 
time  of  planting,  so  that  the  planting  can  begin  at  one  side 
of  the  garden  in  the  early  spring,  and  proceed  across  until 
all  are  in.  This  arrangement  saves  much  labor  in  culti- 
vation without  interfering  with  crops  already  planted. 

(4)  If  the  cultivation  is  to  be  done  with  horse  imple- 
ments, as  it  should  be  in  all  larger  gardens,  the  rows  should 


168  AGRICULTURE 

run  the  long  way,  and  a  turf  turning  ground  be  left  at  each 
end.  It  also  pays  to  place  in  each  row  plants  that  re- 
quire the  same  kind  of  cultivation  and  that  mature  in  about 
the  same  time  so  that  together  they  will  get  out  of  the 
way  of  later  plantings. 


The  boy  witli  a  lioe.    Back-yard  {jaraeulug. 

The  arrangement^  shown,  which  will,  of  course,  need  to  be 
modified  to  meet  personal  requirements,  presents  a  seasonal 
order  of  planting.  In  the  latitude  of  Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa, 
Kansas  and  Nebraska  the  first  ten  rows  can  be  planted 
about  April  first ;  rows  eleven  to  fourteen,  inclusive,  the  last 
week  in  April ;  and  the  remainder  about  May  fifteenth. 

Planting  time  and  maturity. — The  time  required  for 
growth  and  the  date  of  planting  the  common  garden  vegeta- 
bles recommended  by  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  are  as  follows: 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 


16S 


Kind  of 

Vegetable 

Asparagus 

Beans,   bush 

Beans,  pole 
Beets 

Brussels  sprouts 
Cabbage,    early- 
Cabbage,  late 
Carrots 
Cauliflower 
Celery 
Corn,   sweet 
Cucumbers 
Eggplant 
French   endive 
Horseradish 
Lettuce 

Melon,  muskmelon 
Melon,  watermelon 
Onions,  seed 
Onion,sets 
Peas 
Peppers 

Potatoes,    Irish 
Pumpkins 
Radishes 
Rhubarb,  plants 
Salsify 
Squash,  bush 
Squash,   late 
Swiss  chard 
Tomatoes 
Turnips 


Time  of  planting 
South  I<obth 


Ready  fob  use 
aftee  planting 


Fall  or  early 

spring 
Feb.  to  Apr. 
(Aug.  to  Sept.) 
Late  spring 
Feb.  to  Apr. 
(Aug.  to  Sept.) 
Jan.  to  July 
Oct.  to  Dec. 
June  and  July 
Alar.    Apr.    Sept. 
Jan.    Feb.    June 
Aug.  to  Oct. 
Fgb.   to   Apr. 
Feb.  Mch.  Sept. 
Feb.  to  Apr. 
Aug.  to  Oct. 
Early  spring 
Sept.  to  Mar. 
Feb.  to  Apr. 
Mar.  to  May 
Oct.  to   Mar. 
Early   spring 
Sept.   to  Apr. 
Early  spring 
Jan.  to  Apr. 
April  and  May 
Sept.  to  Apr. 


Spring 
Spring 
Feb.   to  Apr. 
Dec.  to   Mar. 
Aug.  to  Oct. 


Early   spring  1  to  3  years 

Apr.  to  July  40  to  65  days 


May  and  June 
Apr.  to  Aug. 

May  and  June 

Mar.  and  Apr. 

May  and  June 

Apr.  to  June 

Apr.  to  June 

May  and  June 

May  to  July 

Apr.   to   July 

Apr.  and  May 

May  to  June 

Early   spring 

March  to  Sept. 

Apr.  to  June 

May  and  June 

Apr.    and    May 

Fall,  Feb.  to  May90  to  120  days  ^' 

March  to  June      40  to  80  days    - 

May  and   June      100  to  140  days  ■^^ 

March  to  June      80  to  140  days  -^ 

May  to  July  100  to  140  days  / 

March  to  Sept.     20  to  40  days 

Fall  or  spring       1  to  3  years 

Early   spring  120  to  180  days 

April  to  June        60  to  80  days 

April  to  June        120  to  160  days 

Apr.  to  Aug.         60  to  80  days 

May  and  June       100  to  140  days 

April    (July)  60  to  80  days 


50  to  80  days 
60  to  80  days 

90  to  120  days 
90  to  130  days 
90  to  130  days 
75  to  110  days 
100  to  130  days  ,^^ 
120  to  150  days 
60    to  100  days  . 
60  to  80  days  A 
100  to  140  days  AJ 
100  to  130  days 
1  to  2  years 
60  to  90  days  ^ 
120  to  150  days   4^ 
100  to  120  days  ,1. 
130  to  150  days 


170  AGRICULTURE 

The  following  plan  of  a  garden  ninety  feet  wide  and  two 
hundred  and  forty  feet  long  suggests  how  to. carry  out  the 
principles  just  stated : 

1 Asparagus o Rhubarb o__Horseradish_ 

2 Parsnips  o__Parsley o Carrots 

3 Onions 

4 Early  Beets — o Swiss  Chard o Salsify 

5 Lettuce   (fol.  by  celery)_o_Radishes   (cel.)_o_Onion  sets 

(follow  by  celery) 

6 Early  Turnips   (fol.  b3''  cel.)-0_Spinach   (cel.)-O-Onion  sets 

(follow  by  celery) 

7 Early  Peas   (follow  by  celery) o String  beans   (eel.) 

8 Early  potatoes  (followed  by  turnips) 

9 Early  potatoes   (followed  by  turnips) 

10 Early  potatoes   (followed  by  turnips) 

11 Later  plantings   of  peas 

12 Early  cabbage o Cauliflower o.Brussels  sprouts. 

13 Summer  cabbage o__String  beans— 

14 Early  sweet  corn   (followed  by  greens) 

IS Tomatoes 

16 Lima    beans o Peppers 

17 Late    cabbages 

18 Late  sweet  corn   (followed  by  lettuce  and  radishes) 

19 Late  sweet  corn   (followed  by  lettuce  and  radishes) 

20x  xxxx@@@@xxxxx@@@@@@@xxxxx 
21x  xxxx@@@@xxxxx@@@@@@@xxxxx 

Cucumbers        Early        Late        Watermelons        Muskmelons 
22x  xxxx@@@@xxxxx@@@@@@@xxxxx 

Squash       Squash 
23x  xxxx@@@@xxxxx@@@@@@@xxxxx 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN  171 

3.     Culture  of  the  Garden  Crops 

Most  of  the  vegetables  named  in  the  preceding  section 
can  be  raised  without  technical  training  in  their  cultiva- 
tion, A  few,  however,  must  have  special  treatment  if  they 
are  to  succeed,  and  if  there  is  not  time  to  give  them  this 
extra  attention  they  would  better  be  left  out. 

Garden  crops  requiring  rich  soil  and  much  tillage. — 
Although  the  whole  garden  should  be  much  richer  than  for 
the  field  crops,  the  following  vegetables  require  an  espe- 
cially rich  soil ;  cabbages,  cauliflower,  Brussels  sprouts,  egg- 
plant, celery,  onions  and  melons.  Melons  may  have  the 
hills  well  manured  and  the  remainder  of  the  area  no  richer 
than  the  rest  of  the  garden.  A  sand  loam,  rich  in  humus, 
is  considered  best  for  most  vegetables. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  plants  which  demand 
a  very  rich  soil  also  need  a  greater  amount  of  tillage  than 
the  remainder  of  the  garden. 

Vegetables  that  require  transplanting. — The  season 
required  for  certain  vegetables  to  mature  for  the  table  is 
so  long  that  in  the  North  they  must  be  started  under  glass 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  winter  and  transplanted  when  the 
weather  is  warm  enough.  The  common  plants  belonging 
to  this  group  are  cabbage,  celery,  cauliflower,  Brussels 
sprouts,  tomatoes,  eggplant,  pepper,  sweet  potato.  Lettuce 
and  muskmelons  may  also  be  transplanted  to  good  advan- 
tage. 

The  hotbed. — For  small  gardens  the  plants  that  are 
to  be  transplanted  are  often  started  in  shallow  boxes.  The 
more  common  method  is,  however,  to  use  a  hotbed. 

A  hotbed  is  made  as  follows :  Select  a  sunny  place  shel- 
tered by  a  building  or  fence  from  the  north  winds,  and 
make  a  bed  of  coarse  manure  from  the  horse  stalls  eighteen 
inches  deep,  eight  feet  wide,  and  any  multiple  of  three  feet 


172  AGRICULTURE 

long.  The  manure  must  be  fresh  and  contain  a  good 
amount  of  straw.  Pack  the  bed  well  by  thoroughly 
tramping. 

Place  on  top  of  the  bed  a  board  frame  six  feet  wide, 
twelve  inches  high  at  the  north  edge  and  six  inches  at  the 
south.  The  frame  may  be  as  long  as  required.  After 
placing  the  frame  in  position,  put  in  it  a  rich  garden  loam 
to  the  depth  of  three  to  six  inches,  packing  and  smoothing 
it  well.     Cover  the  frame  with  glazed  sash. 

If  the  manure  is  in  good  condition  it  will  begin  heating 
almost  at  once,  and  will  soon  raise  the  temperature  of  the 
soil.  Do  not  plant  the  seeds  until  the  heating  has  been 
well  tested  and  the  temperature  has  begun  to  go  down. 
This  will  be  in  about  three  days.  The  hotbed  is  now  ready 
to  receive  the  seed. 

In  raising  the  hotbed  crop  care  must  be  taken  to  lift 
the  sash  during  the  warm  part  of  bright  days,  and  also 
to  water  sufficiently.  Watering  should  be  done  in  the 
morning  on  sunny  days,  else  the  cooling  may  chill  the  plants. 
If  the  temperature  grows  too  high  the  sash  must  be  lifted, 
or  the  plants  will  be  destroyed. 

Transplanting. — When  the  time  comes  for  transplant- 
ing to  the  open  soil  care  must  be  used  or  the  change  may 
kill  the  tender  plants  or  greatly  check  their  growth.  To 
avoid  this  hotbed  plants  are  often  transplanted  to  anotlier 
bed,  called  a  cold-frame,  covered  with  glass  but  not  heated. 
This  is  known  as  the  "hardening  off"  process.  Transplant- 
ing almost  any  plant  is  of  great  advantage  since  it  causes 
the  multiplication  of  many  small  roots  which  add  to  its 
growth. 

Vegetables  that  require  special  treatment. — The 
larger  and  later  varieties  of  peas  grow  so  high  that  they 
require  support,  else  they  spread  out  on  the  ground  and  the 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 


173 


pods  rot.  Where  an  abundance  of  brush  is  available,  rods 
may  be  stuck  in  the  ground  for  them  to  run  on.  Woven 
chicken  wire  is  an  excellent  substitute  and  takes  much  less 
time.  Lima  beans  also  need  poles.  Because  of  this,  bush 
varieties  are  sometimes  grown  in  their  stead. 

Celery  requires  bleaching  to  produce  the  best  results. 
To  accomplish  this,  the  plants  are  usually  set  at  the  bot- 


1 

y 

1 

\ 

^ 

Moth    (Heliothls  obsoleta)  ;   the  caterpiUars  from  this  species 
attack  many  garden  plants,  also  cotton,  corn,  etc. 

tom  of  a  trench  which  is  gradually  filled  in  as  the  plants 
grow.  At  the  end  of  the  season  the  rows  may  be  hilled  up 
so  that  the  plants  are  covered  to  the  top. 

Cauliflower  and  French  endive  are  vegetables:  that  need 
to  be  bleached.  When  the  plants  are  well  grown,  the  leaves 
are  brought  together  and  tied  over  the  top,  thus  protecting 
the  inner  portion  from  the  sun. 


174  AGRICULTURE 

4.    Insect  Enemies  of  the  Vegetable  Garden 

Fortunately,  most  of  the  garden  vegetables  are  not  sub- 
ject to  great  injury  from  insects.  Certain  plants  are,  how- 
ever, special  targets  for  these  pests,  and  must  be  protected 
or  they  will  almost  certainly  be  destroyed. 

The  most  common  enemy  of  cabbage  and  cauliflower  is 
the  cabbage-worm,  which  is  the  larvae  of  the  common  white 
butterfly  seen  about  the  cabbage  patches.  The  most  ef- 
fective remedy  is  spraying  with  the  arsenate  of  lead  prep- 
aration, made  by  mixing  three  pounds  of  the  paste  with  fifty 
gallons  of  water.  To  this  should  be  added  a  mixture  of 
resin  and  lime,  or  soap,  to  cause  the  insecticide  to  stick  to 
the  leaves. 

The  cucumber  beetle. — The  worst  enemy  of  cucum- 
bers is  a  small  striped  beetle  which  eats  the  leaves  of  the 
young  plants.  When  only  a  few  hills  are  raised  they  may 
be  kept  off  the  plants  by  making  a  small  wooden  frame 
over  which  is  stretched  wire  mosquito  netting,  and  plac- 
ing these  boxes  over  the  hills.  These  pests  can  also  be 
controlled  by  spraying  with  the  arsenate  of  lead  compound. 
The  roots  of  the  plants  are  sometimes  attacked  by  the 
larvae  of  the  bettle.  Tobacco  dust  sprinkled  on  the  roots 
is  an  effective  remedy. 

The  cucumber  beetle  is  also  the  most  troublesome  enemy 
of  squash,  muskmelons  and  watermelons.  These  plants 
may  be  protected  in  the  same  way  as  the  cucumber. 

The  aphis. — The  aphis,  a  small  green  fly,  is  a  sucking 
insect  that  attacks  lettuce,  peas  and  other  green  leaf  crops. 
It  is  also  frequently  found  on  flowering  shrubs.  It  may 
be  controlled  by  spraying  with  a  mixture  of  soap  and  water, 
or  with  a  nicofume  preparation  mixed  according  to  direc- 
tions on  the  package. 

The   cutworm. — The  cutworm   attacks  a  number  of 


The  white  grub :    (A)  pupa;  (B)  beetle;   (C)  larva. 


176  AGRICULTURE 

different  vegetables,  cutting  them  off  just  at  or  near  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  The  remedy  is  fall  plowing,  and  poi- 
soning. An  effective  method  of  attracting  to  the  poison  is  to 
dip  clover  blossoms  in  Paris  green,  or  add  Paris  green  to  a 
mixture  of  bran  and  molasses,  and  strew  around  the  roots 
of  the  plants.-      ■  . 

;.<  Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Make  a  careful  diagram  of  your  home  garden  plot, 
showing  its  exact  length  and  breadth.  Now  make  a  plan 
for  this  plot  similar  to  the  one  shown  on  page  170,  being 
careful  to  preserve  the  planting  order  from  one  side  to  the 
other.  What  plants  would  you  add  which  are  not  shown  in 
the  sample  garden  ?    Would  you  leave  any  out  ? 

2.  How  many  plantings  of  radishes  were  made  in  your 
garden?  Of  lettuce?  Of  peas?  Of  beans?  Of  sweet 
corn?    Of  cabbage? 

3.  Is  your  garden  manured  every  year?  Is  the  soil  in 
good  condition  and  free  from  weeds?  Is  rubbish  allowed 
to  remain  on  the  garden  over  winter,  thereby  making  a 
harbor  for  insects  ? 

4.  Which  of  your  garden  crops  have  been  most  at- 
tacked by  insects?  Have  you  used  any  of  the  spray  com- 
pounds as  a  remedy?  If  so,  what  ones,  and  for  what 
insects?  Was  it  successful?  Do  you  know  how  to  mix  and 
apply  the  more  common  insecticides? 

5.  Talk  with  your  father  and  mother  and  plan  your 
home  vegetable  garden  for  next  season.  Bring  your  plans 
to  school,  and  compare  the  different  plans  presented  to 
determine  the  best. 

6.  Prepare  a  plan  and  specifications  for  a  small  hot- 
house which  can  be  heated  with  an  old  stove  or  from  the 
house  heating  plant. 

7.  Show  how  to  keep  a  garden  account  for  a  season  ;  at 
least  six  different  kinds  of  products  should  be  included  in 
the  items. 

8.  Make  a  map  of  the  United  States  and  show  the  two 
most  important  vegetables  grown  in  each  section.  Com- 
pare the  vegetable  garden  products  of  the  Pacific  Coast  with 
those  of  the  Atlantic  Coast ;  the  northern  tier  of  states  with 
the  cotton  belt  states. 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN  177 

5.     Garden  Demonstrations 

1.  Demonstrate  how  to  prepare,  pack  and  ship  vegeta- 
bles by  parcel  post. 

2.  Show  how  to  make  different  types  of  boxes  for  mar- 
keting products. 

3.  Demonstrate  how  to  make  a  home-made  canning 
outfit,  by  using  wash  boiler,  garbage  bucket,  pail  and  tub. 

4.  Show  how  to  can  vegetables  by  the  cold-pack  method. 
(See  Farmers'  Bulletin  521.) 

5.  Demonstrate  how  to  mix  garden  sprays  and  how  to 
use  them. 

6.  Demonstrate  how  to  make  vegetable  dishes  and  how 
to  serve  them. 

6.     Garden  Play  Contests 

All  contests  with  garden  products  should  be  a  com- 
bination of  play  with  helpful  practise  and  instruction. 

1.  Vegetable  judging  contests. 

2.  Story  contest.  Tell  origin  and  life  history  of  dif- 
ferent vegetables. 

3.  Vegetable  spelling  contest. 

4.  Vegetable  drawing  contest.  Place  on  stand  before 
contestants  a  number  of  vegetables  and  have  them  draw 
them. 

5.  Vegetable  canning  contest. 

6.  Paring,  labeling  and  packing  contests. 

7.    Home  Garden  and  Canning  Club  Projects 

One  of  the  most  interesting  of  club  projects  in  connec- 
tion with  the  public  schools  is  the  work  of  the  home  gar- 
den and  canning  club.  This  can  be  undertaken  in  much 
the  same  way  in  both  city  and  rural  territory.  The  club 
plat,  should  be  operated  on  a  business  basis,  and  should  be 


A  i'asadeua,  California,  school  vegetable  garden. 


PubHc  school  garden  In  Portland,  Orego 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN  179 

large  enough  to  make  possible  an  attractive  net  profit  on 
the  investment  of  time,  money  and  energy  of  the  member. 
Club  members  should  range  in  age  from  ten  to  eighteen 
years,  inclusive,  and  be  divided  into  two  classes  denominated 
as  senior  and  junior  gardeners.  The  basis  of  award  should 
be  as  follows : 

1.  Yield   of   garden 1 20 

2.  Net  profit  on  investment 20 

3.  Variety  of  vegetables 20 

4.  Exhibit  of  products,  fresh  and  canned 20 

5.  Record  and  story,  "How^  I  Made  My  Crop" , 20 

Total    score 100 


CHAPTER   XI 
THE  FRUIT  GARDEN 

THE  fruit  garden  is  not  less  desirable  and  profitable 
than  the  vegetable  garden.  Fruit  is  universally  pal- 
atable, and  a  highly  necessary  article  of  food.  And  be- 
cause of  the  high  cost,  the  remoteness  of  markets  and  the 
ease  with  which  fruit  wilts  and  decays,  most  of  it  must  be 
raised  at  home  or  the  family  go  without. 

1.  Measure  accurately  the  space  devoted  to  all  kinds 
of  fruit  in  your  home  garden.  Make  a  diagram  of  the 
garden  showing  the  location  of  each  different  fruit.  What 
proportion  of  ground  is  devoted  to  each  ? 

2.  Make  a  table  showing  the  number  of  each  kind  of 
fruit  tree,  bush  and  vine.  Compare  diagrams  and  tables 
with  other  members  of  the  class  and  seek  the  cause  for  the 
differences.  Just  what  is  the  distinction  between  vegetables 
and  fruit? 

Soil  and  location.^The  soil  and  location  suitable  for 
the  vegetable  garden  will  in  most  cases  be  adapted  to  fruit 
raising  as  well.  Heavy,  damp  day  soil  needs  to  be  drained 
and  manured.  The  ground  must  be  rich.  As  a  matter  of 
convenience  and  economy  of  time  in  caring  for  it,  the  fruit 
garden  should  be  near  the  house. 

1.     Plan  of  the  Fruit  Garden 

Since  the  plants  set  in  the  fruit  garden  are  perennials 
and  remain  more  or  less  permanently  where  they  are  first 

180 


THE  FRUIT  GARDEN  181 

placed,  the  arrangement  should  be  well  planned  from  the 
start.  The  order  in  the  fruit  garden  will  depend  chiefly 
on  convenience,  economy  of  space,  and  the  adaptability  of 
certain  plants  to  grow  in  one  another's  company. 

The  plan. — The  home  fruit  garden,  like  the  vegetable 
garden,  should  be  planned  for  cultivation  by  means  of 
horses.  The  rows  should  therefore  run  the  long  way  of 
the  garden.  The  fruit  garden  may  well  join  the  vegetable 
garden,  and  be  approximately  the  same  size,  about  ninety 
by  two  hundred  and  forty  feet  for  a  farm  garden.  The 
entire  plat  will  then  contain  approximately  one  acre  of 
ground. 

It  is  impossible  to  specify  the  different  allotments  of 
fruit  that  should  go  into  the  home  garden,  since  individual 
taste  and  the  adaptability  of  certain  fruits  to  the  locality 
will  need  to  be  taken  into  account.  The  following  plan, 
providing  for  a  garden  ninety  by  two  hundred  and  forty 
feet,  will,  however,  be  suggestive: 

ooooooooooooo     Grapes       o   ooooooooooo 

o    1 —  50  Blackberries o 70  Raspberries 

o  2 10  Apples 

°   3 L 40  Currants 

°  4 10  Peaches o 5  Pears 

_  5 30  Gooseberries 

o 

Q   6 5  Cherries o 5  Plums o 5  Quinces — 

o    7 Strawberries 

o   8 Strawberries 

In  regions  where  the  climate  will  not  permit  the  grow- 
ing of  peaches,  pears  or  quinces,  hardy  apples  can  be  added 
in  their  stead.  Several  trees  each  of  apricots  and  nectarines 
will  make  a  welcome  addition  where  they  are  adapted  to 
the  climate. 

Varieties. — In  selecting  the  varieties,  care  should  be 
taken  to  secure  both  early  and  late  kinds,  so  that  the  fruit 


182 


AGRICULTURE 


"season  may  be  extended  as  much  as  possible.  Apples  may 
be  chosen  to  begin  ripening  at  harvest  time,  and  continue 
till  late  fall  for  winter  storing.  Cherries  and  plums  may 
be  selected  so  that  the  crop  will  last  during  at  least  two 


Apples  (H'owing  In  u  Wasbington  orchard. 

months.     The  same  is  true  with  grapes  and  many  of  the 
berries. 


THE  FRUIT  GARDEN  183 

List  of  plants. — The  following  fruit  garden  list  is 
recommended  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture for  regions  of  the  latitude  of  northern  Ohio: 

Apples  (10  trees). — Two  Baldwin,  2  Grimes  Golden,  1  Falla- 
water,  2  Red  Astrakan,  1  Bonum,  1  Bough  Sweet,  1  Trans- 
cendent Crab. 

Peaches  (10  trees). — One  Alexander,  2  Rareripe  (Yellow),  2 
Early  Crawford,  4  Late  Crawford,  1  Stephens  Rareripe. 

Cherries  (5  trees). — Two  Early  Richmond,  2  Black  Tartarian, 
1  Allen. 

Plums  (5  trees). — Two  Green  Gage,  2  Lombard,  1  Willard. 

Pears  (S  trees). — Two  Bartlett,  1  Duchess,  1  Kieffer,  1  Seckel. 

Quinces. — Five  Champion. 

Grapes  (50  vines). — Twenty-five  Concord,  10  Niagara,  15 
Brighton. 

Raspberries  (70  bushes). — Twenty-five  Gregg,  10  Marlboro,  25 
Cuthbert,  10  Golden  Queen. 

Blackberries  (50  bushes). — Twenty-five  Agawam,  25  Taylor. 

Currants  (45  bushes). — Twenty-five  Wilder,  10  White  Grapes,  10 
Champion. 

Gooseberries  (30  bushes). — Ten  Downing,  10  Industry,  10  Co- 
lumbus. 

Strawberries  (200  plants). — One  hundred  Brandywine,  100 
Gandy. 

2.     Care  of  the  Fruit  Garden 

Cultivation. — The  successful  fruit  garden  must  at  all 
times  be  kept  free  from  weeds,  and  all  vines,  bushes,  shrubs 
and  young  trees  be  cultivated  the  same  as  any  other  crop. 
To  allow  them  to  become  choked  with  weeds  or  bound  by 
sod  is  to  invite  failure. 

Mulching  with  coarse  manure  will  serve  the  double  pur- 
pose of  helping  to  keep  down  the  weeds  and  conserving 
the  moisture.  Care  must  betaken  not  to  pack  such  a 
heavy  coating  over  the  roots  as  to  deprive  them  of  fresh 
air.  Straw  instead  of  manure  should  be  used  for  the  straw- 
berry bed. 


184  AGRICULTURE 

''•'  Planting. — In  the  North  all  planting  should  be  done  in 
the  spring;  and  as  early  as  the  ground  can  be  worked.  The 
plant  should  be  exposed  to  the  air  as  little  as  possible  be- 
tween the  time  of  taking  up  and  resetting.  The  roots 
should  be  full  and  plentiful,  and  all  broken  or  injured  por- 
tions cut  away.  In  case  a  good  supply  of  roots  can  not  be 
obtained,  the  top  should  be  cut  back  to  correspond  with  the 
roots  remaining.  Unless  this  is  done  the  growth  will  be 
greatly  retarded,  even  if  the  plant  does  not  die. 

The  holes  in  which  the  plants  are  to  be  set  should  be 
sufficiently  large  that  the  roots  can  be  spread  out  in  their 
natural  form,  and  not  bent  or  cramped.  The  earth  should 
be  loosened  a  number  of  inches  below  where  the  roots  are 
to  rest.  The  rich  top  soil  should  be  used  to  pack  about  the 
roots,  being  thoroughly  tramped  to  insure  contact  with  every 
part  of  the  root  fibers.  The  plant  should  stand  in  its  new 
position  an  inch  or  two  deeper  than  in  the  nursery. 

Pruning. — All  garden  fruits  need  pruning.  This  is 
for  the  purpose  (1)  of  favoring  the  growth  of  sturdy 
trunks  or  stems,  (2)  removing  the  non-fruit-bearing  parts 
so  that  the  strength  of  the  plant  may  go  to  the  production 
of  fruit,  and  (3)  relieving  the  plant  of  old  and  useless 
stems  and  branches  that  no  longer  bear  fruit. 

The  time  and  method  of  pruning  different  plants  de- 
pend on  their  habits  of  growth  and  fruit-bearing,  which 
must  be  known  by  the  gardener.  All  cuts  should  leave  a 
clean  smooth  surface,  with  no  tearing  of  the  bark  or  other 
injury. 

Apples  and  Pears  throw  out  in  each  season's  growth 
short  shoots  or  "spurs"  from  the  sides  of  the  branches  that 
are  one  year  or  more  old.  It  is  on  these  spurs  that  the  next 
year's  fruit  is  grown.  All  pruning  after  the  bearing  age 
has  been  reached  must  be  done  with  care  not  to  trim  back 


THE  FRUIT  GARDEN  185 

the  spur-bearing  branches  to  such  an  extent  as  to  hmit  the 
crop.  Pruning  may  be  done  at  any  time  after  the  bearing 
season  and  before  the  new  growth  starts. 

Peaches  are  borne  directly  on  the  wood  of  the  pre- 
ceding year's  growth,  and  the  branches  may  be  headed  in  as 
much  as  required  to  limit  the  amount  of  fruit  produced 
by  the  tree. 

Grapes  are  borne  on  new  shoots  thrown  out  in  the 
spring  from  the  canes,  or  small  side  branches  of  the  pre- 
ceding season.  Old  wood  is  therefore  of  little  value,  and 
grapes  will  stand  sevei^  pruning.  There  are  many  differ- 
ent systems  of  pruning  in  use  based  on  the  form  of  the 
vine    desired. 

Raspberries  and  blackberries  both  produce  their  fruit 
on  short  shoots  thrown  out  by  the  canes  of  the  previous 
year's  growth.  The  bushes  may  be  cut  back  in  the  fall 
or  early  spring,  and  all  old  wood  past  the  best  bearing 
age  removed. 

Currants  and  gooseberries  grow  fruit  on  both  old  and 
new  wood,  the  blossoms  appearing  in  the  axils  of  the  shoots. 
All  wood  three  years  of  age  should  be  cut  away. 

Strawberries  grow  their  fruit  chiefly  on  the  newer 
plants.  The  most  fruitful  plants  are  those  only  one  year 
old.  Plants  over  two  years  old  do  not  produce  enough 
to  pay  and  should  be  rooted  out  to  give  place  for  new  ones, 

3.    Enemies  of  the  Fruit  Garden 

The  fruit  garden  is  prey  to  a  variety  of  insect  and 
other  enemies.  Unless  the  owner  is  willing  to  give  time 
and  attention  to  combating  these  pests  there  is  little  use 
to  attempt  fruit  raising,  for  it  is  sure  to  be  a  failure. 
Spraying  with  some  form  of  fungicide  or  insecticide  is  the 
only  means  of  controlling  them,  and  no  one  mixture  will 
serve  for  all  purposes. 


186 


AGRICULTURE 


Insect  enemies. — The  insect  enemies  of  the  fruit  gar- 
den are  of  two  types:  the  biting  insects,  or  those  that  actu- 
ally eat  portions  of  the  plant;  such  as  the  larvae  of  the 
codling-moth;  and  the  sucking  insects,  or  those  that  pierce 
the  fruit,  leaves,  or  bark  with  sharp  beaks  or  bristles,  and 
live  off  the  juices  of  the  plant.  The  latter  group  includes 
various  plant  bugs,  lice  and  scale  insects. 

In  general,  the  biting  insects  can  be  destroyed  by  spray- 


Apple  clusters,  on  the  Jeft,  with  calyx  l()l)es  spread  nnd  in  good 
condition  for  sprnylnj?;  on  the  right,  with  calyx  lobes  closed 
and  too  late  for  effective  spraying. 

ing  with  some  poison  such  as  the  arsenical  compounds, 
which,  if  eaten,  will  kill  them.  The  sucking  insects  can  not 
be  destroyed  in  this  way,  since  the  poison  does  not  penetrate 
into  the  plant  tissues  whence  they  draw  their  food.  For 
this  group  it  is  necessary  to  use  some  preparation  that  will 
either  act  on  their  bodies  as  a  caustic,  or  that  will  smother 


THE  FRUIT  GARDEN 


187 


them  by  closing  their  breathing  pores,  or  that  will  fill  the 
air  with  poisonous  fumes. 

Fungous    enemies. — Almost    every    kind    of    garden 
fruit  is  a  prey  to  one  or  more  parasitic  enemies  in  the  form 


Two  common  defects  of  apples.  Tlie  codling  moth  causes 
greater  loss  to  many  apple  growers  than  all  other  insects  com- 
bined, despite  the  fact  that  this  pest  can  be  controlled  by 
proper  spraying. 


188  AGRICULTURE 

of  growths  on  fruit,  foliage  or  branches.  For  these  pests 
sprays  are  used  that  are  fatal  to  the  parasite  but  not  in- 
jurious to  the  plant. 

Scab,  rust,  rot,  blight  and  mildew  are  examples  of 
fungous  enemies.  In  some  cases  the  one  variety  attacks 
several  different  garden  fruits,  thus  allowing  the  same 
spraying  mixture  to  be  used  on  all  the  various  crops.  In 
other  cases,  different  fungicide  compounds  must  be  employed 
for  the  different  fruits. 

Spraying. — The  composition  of  some  of  the  different 
spraying  mixtures  is  described  in  Chapter  XIII.  It  is  evident 
from  the  nature  of  the  insects  and  diseases  attacking  fruit 
that  no  one  remedy  will  serve  all  purposes.  Apples,  plums, 
peaches,  pears  and  cherries  are  the  special  target  of  a  wide 
range  of  insects  and  fungi.  These  plants  will  need  several 
sprayings,  using  different  insecticides  and  fungicides  ac- 
cording to  the  pest  threatening.  Every  fruit  gardener  must 
understand  the  nature  and  use  of  the  required  compounds. 

All  fruit  trees  should  be  treated  with  a  dormant  spray, 
applied  some  time  during  the  dormant  season,  usually  about 
March.  The  object  is  to  kill  the  various  scale  insects  and 
mites  which  winter  on  the  tree.  Bordeaux  mixture  or  lime- 
sulphur  solution  is  effective.  Bordeaux  should  not  be  used 
on  plums  or  peaches. 

A  second  spraying  should  be  applied  just  after  the  leaf 
buds  burst,  but  before  the  blossoms  open.  The  mixture 
may  be  a  combination  of  lime-sulphur  or  Bordeaux  and 
arsenate  of  lead.  This  is  to  destroy  the  curculio,  scab,  leaf 
blight  and  similar  enemies. 

Apples  should  be  given  their  third  spraying  immediately 
after  the  petals  fall,  but  before  the  calyx  tubes  close.  The 
chief  purpose  of  this  application  is.  to  destroy  the  codling- 
moth,  which  is  responsible  for  most  of  our  wormy  apples. 
The  same  mixture  may  be  used  as  in  the  second  spraying. 


Nest  and  larvae  of  the  apple-tree  tent  caterpillar. 


190 


AGRICULTURE 


iA.pples  should  be  sprayed  again  several  weeks  after  the  pet- 
als fall,  and  at  least  once  more  during  the  season,  probably 
in  July,  in  all  regions  where  the  enemies  are  troublesome. 


Yellow-necked  cnterplllnrs  feeding.  The  cat- 
erpillar nt  the  top  shows  characteristic  pose 
when  disturbed. 


Pears  should  receive  their  third  spraying  just  before 
the  blossoms  open,  another  as  the  petals  fall,  and  a  final 
spraying  several  weeks  later.     Peaches,  plums  and  cher- 


THE  FRUIT  GARDEN  191 

ries  must  also  receive  several  sprayings  if  the  crop  is  to  be 
free  from  worms,  blight,  rot  and  other  troubles  that  threaten 
the  final  success  of  the  crop. 

Spraying  machines. — While  it  seems  that  a  great  deal 
of  trouble  and  expense  are  required  to  protect  the  farm 
fruit  garden,  it  is  really  less  than  it  appears  if  a  good 
spraying  pump  is  used.  There  are  many  different  kinds 
of  these,  each  suited  fo^:  particular  needs,  and  none  is  ex- 
pensive. Whatever  make  of  pump  is  secured,  it  must  be 
powerful  enough  to  drive  a  fine  spray  to  every  part  of  the 
largest  tree. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Compare  the  diagram  of  your  fruit  garden  with  the 
plan  shown  on  page  181.  Which  is  the  better  plan  as  to 
arrangement  ?  Are  any  fruits  shown  in  the  plan  which  you 
do  not  have?  Could  they  be  successfully  grown  in  your 
region  ?    Do  you  have  any  not  shown  in  the  plan-? 

2.  Compare  the  proportion  of  space  given  each  fruit  in 
the  plan  with  the  proportion  shown  in  your  diagram.  What 
is  your,  conclusion  ?  Compare  the  proportion  of  space  given 
each  fruit  in  the  diflFerent  gardens  represented  at  the  school, 
and  determine  which  garden  is  best  balanced. 

3.  Make  a  list  of  all  your  home  fruit  by  varieties,  con- 
structing a  table  similar  to  that  on  page  183. 

4.  Is  your  fruit  garden  well  cultivated  and  free  from 
weeds?  Are  any  of  the  plants  sod-bound?  Is  mulching 
used? 

5.  Learn  to  identify  surely  and  quickly  each  of  the 
different  fruit  trees,  shrubs  and  vines,  either  when  in 
foliage  or  dormant. 

6.  Go  with  your  teacher  or  some  expert  gardener  to 
some  near-by  fruit  garden  and  learn  how  and  why  the  dif- 
ferent plants  should  be  pruned.  Is  your  home  garden  well 
pruned  ? 

7.  Bring  specimen  branches  or  stems  of  the  different 
garden  fruits  and  show  where  and  how  the  fruit  is  borne. 
Make  a  drawing  in  each  case. 

8.  Is  your  fruit  garden  regularly  sprayed  ?    What  kind 

14 


\e8t  of  the  fall  web  worm.    The  caterpillars  work  Inside  the 
web  and  not  upon  the  outside  as  do  the  tent  caterpillars. 


THE  FRUIT  GARDEN 


193 


of  spray  machine  is  used?     What  mixtures?     What  ene- 
mies are  most  troublesome  in  the  case  of  each  fruit? 

9.  Make  a  collection  of  all  the  different  insects  and 
fungi  you  can  find  that  damage  fruit  in  your  region.  Learn 
to  identify  each.    What  spray  is  fatal  to  each  ? 

10.  Estimate  the  value  of  the  fruit  produced  in  your 


Tlie  ijluiu  curcullo  on  a  young  peach. 


home  garden  last  year.  Did  it  pay  for  the  ground  occu- 
pied and  the  time  used?  How  can  the  amount  of  fruit  and 
its  net  profit  be  increased?  What  are  your  plans  in  this 
direction  for  next  year? 

11.  Show  how  to  keep  a  debit  and  credit  account  of 
the  fruit  garden.  It  should  contain  the  receipts  and  expen- 
ditures for  at  least  three  varieties  of  fruits. 


Buldwiu  upple  badly  Infested  with  Sun  Jose  scale. 


THE  FRUIT  GARDEN 


195 


12.  Show  upon  the  map  the  different  fruit  belts  and 
estimate  from  the  crop  census  records  the  crop  production 
for  the  past  season  in  the  various  states.  Locate  upon 
the  map  the  citrus  fruit  states,  the  apple  states,-  the  small 
fruit  states. 


Twig     showing     jii)i)eiiriuice     of 
leaves  infested  witii  apple  aphis. 

4.     Fruit  Demonstrations 

The  demonstrations  in  connection  with  the  fruit  studies 
serve  a  double  purpose :  ( 1 )  to  arouse  definite  interest  of 
the  school  and  community  in  fruit  as  a  profitable  crop  for 
the  farm  and  home,  and  (2)  to  show  the  relation  of  fruit 
to  the  daily  diet. 


Peaches   destroyetl    l)y    brown    rot,    showing    gray    masses    of 
8IK>re.s  of  the  fungus. 


THE  FRUIT  GARDEN  197 

1.  Demonstrate  how  to  can  the  various  kinds  of  local 
fruits  by  use  of  the  cold  pack  method. 

2.  Demonstrate  and  explain  the  use  of  other  methods 
of  canning  fruits,  and  of  glass  and  tin  containers  for  the 
canning  of  surplus  fruits  of  the  garden  and  orchard. 

3.  The  proper  method  of  scalding,  blanching,  paring, 
coring,  stemming,  hulling  and  seeding  of  various  kinds  of 
fruits. 

4.  Show  how  to  grade  and  crate  the  various  kinds  of 
fruits  for  the  market,  and  the  use  of  parcel-post  packs. 
Show  how  to  prepare  exhibits  of  fruit  for  fairs,  club  fes- 
tivals, educational  meetings,  etc. 

5.     Fruit  Play  Contests 

Among  the  most  interesting  play  contests  in  connection 
with  the  agricultural  and  home  economic  work  of  the  school 
are  the  fruit  play  contests.  These  contests  will  not  only 
serve  to  create  interest  in  the  study,  but  will  actually  teach 
valuable  lessons  on  how  to  do  the  important  things  related 
to  the  project. 

1.  Fruit  judging  contest. 

2.  Paring,  seeding  and  stemming  contests. 

3.  Oral  recipe  giving  contest. 

4.  Fruit  pie  guessing  games. 

5.  Spelling  contest,  in  which  the  fruit  terms,  names 
and  related  interests  are  used. 

6.  Apple  coring  and  paring  contest.  This  is  especially 
valuable  in  teaching  skill  in  the  handling  of  knives,  and  in 
encouraging  practise  in  rapid  paring  and  coring  without 
too  much  loss  of  food  material. 

7.  Apple  or  fruit  races.  These  can  be  conducted  very 
much  on  the  same  plan  as  potato  and  &gg  races,  which  are 
known  to  all.  ' 


stages  of  the  codling- uiotli ;    (a)  uiotb ;    (b)   larva;   (c)   pupa 
in  its  cocoon. 


California  grapes  and  pacliing  for  shipping. 


THE  FRUIT  GARDEN 


199 


8.  Variety  naming  contests. 

9.  Fruit  art  contests,  in  which  the  contestants  are  to 
draw  free  hand  on  paper  the  various  types  of  fruit  placed 
before  them. 

10.  Fruit  grading  and  packing  contests,  including  prep- 
aration of  parcel-post  packages. 


San    Jose    Scale. 

(1)  Natural  size  on  apple  twig.  (2)  Scales  on  rose  stem  en- 
larged. (3)  Scales  on  apple  twig,  much  enlarged,  (a)  Adult 
female  scales;  (b)  male  scales;  (c)  young  developing  scales. 
The  depi'essed  ring  around  the  raised  central  dot  is  a  charac- 
teristic of  this  species. 


6.     Fruit   Club  Project 

The  organization  of  a  fruit  club  is  not  only  possible  but 
interesting  and  practical.  This  is  illustrated  in  connection 
with  apple  clubs,  in  which  each  member  takes  charge  for 
the  entire  season  of  a  row  or  square  of  ten  or  twelve  apple 
trees,  keeps  records,  does  all  the  pruning,  spraying,  plow- 
ing,  trimming,   picking,   grading,   crating,   marketing,   and 


200  AGRICULTURE 

canning  of  windfall  apples.  In  some  cases  it  may  be  ad- 
visable for  the  class  to  take  entire  charge  of  an  orchard  and 
apportion  it  into  as  many  parts  as  there  are  members.  The 
basis  of  award  may  be  as  follows : 

1.  Management    of    orchard 20 

2.  Condition  of  the  orchard  at  close  of  season 20 

3.  Net    profit    on    investment 20 

4.  Exhibit  and  quality  of  both  fresh  and  canned  products  20 

5.  Crop  report  and  story  of  season's  work 20 

Total   score 100 

The  above  score  can  be  modified  to  suit  club  projects 
with  strawberries,  peaches,  pears  and  citrus  fruits. 

The  fall  fruit  and  vegetable  festival  held  in  connection 
with  the  school  for  the  entire  community  should  be  one 
of  the  most  interesting  events  of  the  year.  At  this  time  the 
demonstrations,  exhibits  and  play  contests  can  be  success- 
fully carried  out  with  definite  educational  and  recreative 
value  to  all. 


CHAPTER  XII 
THE  TOMATO 

TOMATOES  are  becoming  so  important  a  garden  and 
truck  crop  as  to  deserve  special  mention.  They  came 
originally  from  tropical  regions,  where  the  vines  bear  fruit 
all  the  year. 

1.    Importance  of  the  Tomato 

For  a  long  time  tomatoes  were  not  known  to  have  value 
as  a  food,  but  were  thought  to  be  poison.  The  plants  were 
then  cultivated  for  ornamental  purposes  and  were  known 
as  "love  apples." 

Uses  now  as  food. — The  chief  value  of  tomatoes  as  a 
food  lies  in  the  sugars  and  protein,  and  in  a  stimulating 
effect  on  digestion.  More  than  three  hundred  recipes  have 
been  worked  out  in  preparing  tomatoes  for  our  tables.  Many 
more  people  than  now  use  tomatoes  as  a  part  of  their  diet 
will  do  so  when  they  come  to  know  more  of  their  value. 

Tomato  growing  states. — Tomatoes  will  grow  suc- 
cessfully in  almost  every  part  of  the  United  States.  Mary- 
land is  one  of  the  largest  tomato  producing  states,  and  has 
the  largest  number  of  tomato  canning  factories.  New 
Jersey,  Indiana,  California  and  Delaware  rank  next. 

Hundreds  of  thousands  of  cases  of  tomatoes  are  now 
being  grown  and  canned  annually  by  the  girls  of  the  can- 
ning clubs.  It  is  estimated  that,  after  paying  the  expenses 
of  raising  her  crop,  a  club  girl  from  ten  to  eighteen  years 
of  age  can  make  from  ten  dollars  to  twenty-five  dollars  a 
day  for  the  time  she  puts  in  canning  the  crop  for  market 

201 


202  AGRICULTURE 


2.     Varieties 


In  selecting  the  varieties  for  the  home  garden  the  length 
of  season,  quality,  yield  and  appearance  of  the  crop  should 
be  considered. 

Early  varieties. — There  are  a  great  many  varieties 
from  which  to  select.  Among  the  favorites  are :  Earliana, 
Chalk's  Early  Jewell,  Bonnie  Best,  Globe  and  Princess 
June  Pink. 

Late  varieties. — The  chief  late  varieties  are:  Stone, 
Matchless,  Beauty,  Ponderosa,  Dwarf  Stone,  Acme  and 
Trophy. 

3.    Raising  the  Crop 

Where  the  seasons  are  short  it  is  necessary  to  start  the 
plants  in  a  hotbed  and  transplant  them  when  all  danger  of 
frost  is  past.  In  northernmost  states  it  is  well  to  use  the 
cold-frame  for  hardening  off  the  plants  before  setting  in 
the  garden.  This  process  strengthens  the  plants  and  ena- 
bles the  crop  to  mature  before  freezing  in  the  fall. 

Transplanting. — Have  the  seed  bed  well  prepared  by 
deep  spading  or  plowing,  thoroughly  manured  with  a  well- 
rotted  barnyard  manure,  and  well  pulverized.  The  plat 
should  be  marked  off  in  rows  three  or  four  feet  apart,  accord- 
ing to  the  variety  of  tomatoes  grown.  The  large  hardy  vari- 
eties will  require  a  distance  of  four  feet  each  way,  while 
the  dwarf  varieties  will  do  well  three  feet  apart.  In  trans- 
planting, have  the  holes  opened  up,  remove  the  plants  from 
cold-frames  or  hotbed  without  injuring  the  roots.  Allow 
enough  soil  to  accompany  the  roots  so  that  the  plant  may 
go  on  growing  without  pause. 

Pruning. — Much  of  the  success  of  the  tomato  crop 
depends  on  proper  pruning  and  staking.  Tomatoes  are 
especially  liable  to  fungous  and  bacterial  diseases,  and  there- 
fore need  to  be  kept  from  the  ground  and  given  an  abun- 


THE  TOMATO 


203 


dance  of  sunlight.    The  vines  should  be  pruned  at  the  time 
of  transplanting  or  afterward  by  pinching  off  the  suckers, 


A  plot  o*'  tomatoes  sliowiug  tlie  result  of  careful  pruning  and 
staking, 

or  secondary  leaf  buds,  found  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves. 
This  will  cause  the  plant  to  grow  tall  instead  of  spreading 
out.     After  each  vine  has  developed  four  or  five  clusters 


204  AGRICULTURE     . 

'of  fruit  the  top  bud  should  be  pinched  off  to  prevent  the 
plant  from  growing  too  high. 

Staking. — The  method  of  pruning  described  requires 
staking  to  support  the  vines.  For  this  purpose  a  singly 
stake  may  be  driven  beside  each  hill,  or  a  continuous  meshed 
wire  or  other  form  of  fence  may  be  used.  Soft  twine  or 
cloth  should  be  used  for  tying  the  vines.  No  loop  should 
be  drawn  tightly  around  the  plant. 

Spraying. — ^The  tomato  vines  should  be  thoroughly 
sprayed  with  Bordeaux  mixture  several  times  during  the 
season.  The  first  spray  should  be  given  about  the  time  the 
first  fruit  begins  to  form,  or  even  earlier  if  the  season  is 
warm  and  moist.  This  will  prevent  the  plants  from  being 
attacked  by  mildew.  Remove  at  once  any  tomatoes  that 
show  a  brownish  discolored  area  about  the  blossom  end. 
This  will  prevent  the  spread  of  disease. 

4.     Harvesting  and  Marketing 

Gathering  the  crop. — ^Tomatoes  should  be  gathered 
when  ripe  and  firm  and  should  be  handled  with  great  care 
to  prevent  crushing  or  bruising.  For  marketing  they  should 
be  graded  in  three  classes,  prime,  medium  and  culls.  The 
more  nearly  uniform  in  size,  shape  and  color,  the  more  will 
the  market  offer  for  the  product. 

Canning. — Tomatoes  for  canning  purposes  should  be 
thoroughly  ripened  and  be  of  the  deep  red  color,  smooth 
and  firm.  They  should  be  canned  whole  so  as  to  permit 
the  use  of  the  tomato  in  as  many  different  ways  as  is  pos- 
sibly with  the  fresh  tomato.  Water  should  not  be  added 
to  jars  or  cans  when  canning  tomatoes,  as  this  will  dilute 
their  flavor,  destroy  their  color,  and  injure  their  purity. 
The  culls  may  be  put  up  for  such  purposes  as  puree,  for 
tomato  soup,  breaded  tomatoes,  etc. 


An  Iowa  club  girl  showing  bow  to  prune  the  tomato  plant  by 
pinching  off  the  axillary  bud. 


206  AGRICULTURE 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Write  a  brief  history  of  the  tomato.  Name  the 
different  uses  to  which  the  tomato  is  put  in  your  own  home. 
Can  you  suggest  still  other  uses?  Why  should  tomatoes 
be  canned  whole? 

2.  How  many  quarts  of  tomatoes  did  you  raise  and 
can  last  year?  What  kind  of  soil  is  best  adapted  to  the 
culture  of  tomatoes? 

3.  Make  a  drawing  of  a  hotbed,  giving  all  dimensions. 
Write  out  full  directions  for  preparing  and  filling  and  car- 
ing for  the  bed. 

4.  Show  how  to  keep  a  bookkeeping  account  of  one- 
tenth  acre  of  tomatoes,  covering  items  of  cost  and  cash 
received  from  the  time  of  preparing  the  hotbed  to  the  can- 
ning and  marketing  of  the  crop. 

5.  Show  on  the  map  of  the  United  States  the  greatest 
tomato  states,  and  the  approximate  location  of  the  terri- 
tory in  which  the  early  varieties  should  be  grown  and  the 
territory  in  which  the  late  varieties  should  be  grown. 

5.     Demonstrations  with  the  Tomato 

1.  Demonstrate  how  to  scald,  pare  and  core  the  to- 
mato. 

2.  How  to  can  tomatoes. 

3.  How  to  grade  and  crate  for  parcel-post  shipment, 
prime  grade  tomatoes. 

4.  Demonstrate  how  to  use  the  tomato  in  the  home  by 
preparing  certain  dishes. 

5.  Demonstrate  the  proper  method  of  pruning  and 
staking  of  tomato  vines. 

6.  Other  demonstrations  of  cultivation,  hoeing,  spray- 
ing, thinning,  etc.,  can  be  undertaken  in  connection  with 
tomato  culture. 

6.     Tomato  Play  Contests 

1.  Tomato  race,  conducted  on  very  much  the  same  plan 
as  the  potato  race. 


THE  TOMATO  207 

2.  Tomato  judging  contest. 

3.  Tomato  canning  contest. 

4.  Can  labeling  contest. 

5.  Essay  writing  contest  on  the  origin  and  history  of 
the  tomato. 

6.  Tomato  problems  contest. 

7.  Tomato  recipe  giving  contest. 

7.     Tomato  Club  Project 

One  of  the  most  interesting  club  projects  is  the  grow- 
ing of  a  club  plat  of  tomatoes  and  studying  all  of  the  inter- 
esting lessons  from  the  selection  of  the  variety  of  seed, 
through  the  hotbed,  cold-frame,  transplanting,  pruning, 
staking,  cultivating,  gathering,  grading,  crating,  marketing 
and  home  canning  of  the  surplus  product.  To  this  can  be 
added  finally  the  working  up  of  the  product  into  various 
dishes  for  the  table.  For  the  rural  communities  one-tenth 
of  an  acre  should  be  the  acreage  basis,  and  for  city  and 
village  work,  not  less  than  a  square  rod. 

The  basis  of  award  should  be : 

1.  Yield,   total   pounds   of   tomatoes 20 

2.  Net  profit  on  investment 20 

3.  Quality,   both   fresh   and   canned   products 20 

4.  Variety    of    canned    and    prepared    tomato    products    on 
exhibit    20 

5.  Cost  record  and  story  "How  I   Made,  Canned  and  Mar-  ' 
keted    My    Crop" 20 

Total    score 100 


CHAPTER  XIII 
GARDEN   AND    ORCHARD   SPRAYS 

POISONOUS  sprays  for  the  destruction  of  insect  and 
fungi  of  garden  and  orchards  have  come  into  general 
use.  Upon  their  successful  application  often  depends  the 
value  of  the  crop,  both  as  to  quantity  and  quality.  Not  in- 
frequently an  entire  failure  of  yield  results  from  the  attack 
of  these  pests  when  they  are  not  destroyed  in  time.  Wormy 
and  scabby  apples,  rotting  peaches  and  plums,  blighted  ber- 
ries and  diseased  vegetables  prove  the  necessity  for  some 
means  of  stopping  their  ravages. 

The  purpose  of  the  two  classes  of  mixtures,  fungicides 
and  insecticides,  is  indicated  by  the  name  applied;  the  cide 
in  each  word  means  to  kill.  Onl)'  the  more  important  and 
common  fungicides  and  insecticides  will  be  described  here. 

1.    Bordeaux  Mixture 

Bordeaux  mixture  is  one  of  the  most  successful  and 
widely  used  fungicides.  Used  at  proper  strength  it  is  harm- 
less to  most  plants,  though  it  has  been  found  injurious  to 
some,  especially  plums  and,  in  less  degree,  peaches.  It  will 
also  stain  foliage  and  fruit  upon  which  it  falls. 

Composition. — Bordeaux  mixture  is  made  when 
needed,  of  copper  sulphate  (blue  vitriol)  and  lime.  The 
strength  may  be  varied,  depending  on  the  required  use.  The 
proportions  most  generally  accepted  are: 

4  pounds  of  copper  sulphate. 
6  pounds  of  fresh  lime. 
50  gallons  of  water. 

208 


Duchess  apples,  showing  results  of  punctures  of  the  plum  cur- 
culio.     This  injury  could  have  been  saved  by  proper  spraying. 


'fj'                 J  /  iA^^^^ 

%'"-x''4|^^ 

^                 ?^^\ 

>%^ 

idr- 

mm 

I- 

'^^tS^'"       ■  s 

K  ^ 

ba—  3 

jSpraying  apple  trees. 


210  AGRICULTURE 

The  copper  sulphate  is  the  active  agent  in  kilHng  the 
fungi,  while  the  lime  prevents  injury  to  the  plant.  Besides 
this  "4-6-50"  mixture,  other  formulas  frequently  used  are 
of  the  proportions  4-4-50,  and  5-5-50. 

Making  the  mixture. — When  but  a  small  amount  of 
spraying  is  to  be  done  the  only  equipment  required  for 
making  Bordeaux  mixture  is  a  fifty-gallon  barrel,  two  twen- 
ty-five gallon  tubs,  buckets  and  a  fine-mesh  sieve. 

Fill  one  .of  the  smaller  tubs  with  water,  and  suspend 
just  below  the  surface  four  pounds  of  copper  sulphate  in  a 
loose  bag,  giving  it  time  to  dissolve.  This  will  require 
about  an  hour,  though  the  process  can  be  hastened  by  using 
hot  water.  Slake  six  pounds  of  lime  in  the  other  tub,  us- 
ing hot  water  and  reducing  the  lime  to  a  paste.  When  the 
lime  has  cooled,  dilute  to  twenty-five  gallons. 

Now  stir  the  contents  of  the  tubs,  and  pour  bucketfuls 
of  each  mixture  simultaneously  through  a  sieve  into  the 
larger  barrel,  making  sure  that  the  streams  mix.  Stir  well, 
and  the  compound  is  ready  for  the  spraying  machine. 

Use. — The  amount  needed  for  a  garden  can  be  judged 
from  the  fact  that  a  tree  in  full  leaf  and  having  a  spread 
of  twenty-five  feet  will  require  about  four  gallons  of  the 
mixture.  Most  beginnners  use  too  little,  and  hence  fail  to 
get  the  best  results. 

Bordeaux  mixture  is  not  effective  against  insects.  If, 
however,  arsenate  of  lead  in  the  proportion  of  two  pounds  to 
each  barrel  of  the  mixture  be  combined  with  it,  the  com- 
pound will  serve  as  a  check  on  both  insests  and  fungous 
diseases.  Scab,  apple  blotch,  bitter  rot,  wilt,  mildew  and 
brown  rot  are  controlled  by  Bordeaux  mixture. 

2.    Lime-Sulphur  Mixture 
The  lime-sulphur  mixture,  besides  being  an  insecticide 
for  certain  plant  insects,  is  also  a  fungicide  serving  the  same 


•      GARDEN  AND  ORCHARD  SPRAYS         211 

general  purpose  as  Bordeaux  mixture.  It  has  the  advantage 
of  not  injuring  certain  plants,  such  as  peaches  and  plums, 
to  which  Bordeaux  mixture  is  not  adapted.  Some  fruit 
growers  are  coming  to  employ  it  as  their  principal  fungi- 
cide. 

Composition. — The  strength  of  the  mixture  may 
vary,  the  proportion  of  the  ingredients  commonly  being : 

8  pounds  of  flour  of  sulphur. 
8  pounds  of  fresh  lime. 
50  gallons  of  water. 

Making  the  mixture. — The  lime-sulphur  compound 
may  be  made  by  several  different  processes,  one  of  the  sim- 
plest of  which  is  the  self-boiling  process.  To  make  the  self- 
boiled  mixture,  put  eight  pounds  of  lime  to  slake,  and  while 
the  slaking  process  is  going  on,  sift  over  the  lime  eight 
pounds  of  finely  powdered  sulphur.  Stir  constantly,  adding 
water  until  a  thin  paste  is  secured.  Dilute  to  fifty  gallons, 
and  strain  before  using. 

Lime-sulphur  may  be  also  bought  ready  for  use.  Al- 
though it  costs  slightly  more  than  the  home-made  product, 
the  time  saved  makes  the  commercial  form  cheaper  if  but 
a  small  amount  is  required. 

Use. — Lime-sulphur  controls  scale  insects  and  cur- 
culio,  as  well  as  such  fungous  diseases  as  scab,  leaf  curl, 
brown  rot,  etc.  Arsenate  of  lead  may  be  used  with  this 
mixture  also. 

3.    Arsenate  of  Lead 

Arsenate  of  lead  is  one  of  the  most  important  stomach 
insecticides  known,  and  has  largely  taken  the  place  of  Paris 
green  with  most  fruit  growers.  It  seems  to  be  palatable 
to  all  garden  insects.  It  adheres  well  to  foliage,  and  hence 
does  not  easily  wash  off  in  showers  as  does  Paris  green.  It 
will  not  injure  plants  no  matter  how  strong  the  solution. 


212  AGRICULTURE 

And  it  also  acts  as  a  fungicide,  especially  when  mixed  with 
lime-sulphur. 

Composition. — Arsenate  of  lead  is  easily  compounded, 
the  usual  formula  being : 

.  22  ounces  acetate  of  lead   dissolved  in  2  gallons   of  warm 
water. 
8  ounces  arsenate  of  soda  dissolved  in  1  gallon  of  water. 
(Use  wooden  pail  in  each  case.) 

The  two  solutions  are  now  poured  together  and  diluted 
with  water  to  make  a  mixture  of  fifty  gallons,  when  it  is 
ready  to  spray. 

Arsenate  of  lead  may  also  be  procured  in  the  form  of 
a  paste  ready  to  dilute  for  the  spraying  machine.  Three 
pounds  of  the  commercial  paste  will  make  fifty  gallons  of 
spray.  It  will  hardly  pay  to  go  to  the  trouble  of  mixing  the 
compound  at  home,  since  the  ready-made  product  usually 
costs  no  more  than  the  ingredients  for  making  the  mixture. 

Use. — The  arsenate  of  lead  mixture  may  be  used 
either  alone  or  with  fungicides  for  destroying  nearly  the 
whole  range  of  biting  insects  attacking  garden  fruits.  It 
has  proved  of  the  greatest  service,  especially  in  the  spraying 
of  apples. 

4.     Paris  Green 

Paris  green  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  best  known  of  the 
insect  poisons.  Several  thousand  tons  are  used  each  year 
for  this  purpose. 

Composition. — Paris  green  is  often  prepared  for 
spraying  by  simply  dissolving  from  four  to  eight  ounces  in 
fifty  gallons  of  water.    The  standard  formula,  however,  is : 

4  ounces  of  Paris  green. 
%  pound  of  lime. 
50  gallons  of  water. 

The  lime  is  to  be  slaked  and  mixed  with  the  water.   The 


Crop  from  four  sprayed  peach  trees ;  one  basket  of  scabby  fruit 
at  the  left ;  the  remainder  sound. 


Crop  from  four  unsprayed  peach  trees.     Sound  fruit  in  three 
baskets  at  left;  the  remainder  scabby. 


214  AGRICULTURE 

Paris  green  is  mixed  to  paste  form  in  a  small  quantity  of 
water,  and  then  added  to  the  water. 

Use. — Paris  green  may  be  used  in  combination  with 
the  Bordeaux  mixture,  but  not  with  lime-sulphur.  When 
mixing  it  with  Bordeaux,  the  Paris  green  should  be  com- 
bined with  the  diluted  lime  before  it  is  brought  in  contact 
with  the  copper  sulphate. 

5,    Kerosene  Emulsion 

Kerosene  is  one  of  the  best  of  contact  insecticides.  A 
small  particle  of  it  on  any  part  of  the  body  means  certain 
death  to  any  insect.  Pure  kerosene,  however,  will  injure 
most  plants,  and  hence  must  be  used  in  a  mixture.  The 
best  of  these  is  what  is  known  as  kerosene  emulsion. 

Composition. — The  formula  for  the  mixture  commonly 
used  is : 

%  pound  hard  laundry  soap  shaved  fine. 

1  gallon  of  soft  water. 

2  gallons  of  kerosene. 

Making  the  emulsion. — One  of  the  advantages  in  the 
use  of  this  spray  is  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  made. 
Dissolve  the  soap  in  one  gallon  of  boiling  water;  remove 
from  the  stove  and  at  once  add  two  gallons  of  kerosene. 
Stir  while  cooling  until  a  soft,  butter-like  mass  is  obtained. 
Dilute  one  part  of  this  stock  solution  with  ten  or  twelve 
parts  of  water  as  needed  for  spraying. 

Use. — Kerosene  emulsion  may  be  used  on  all  kinds 
of  tender  foliage  without  injury.  It  will  control  the  vari- 
ous kinds  of  plant  lice,  slugs,  etc. 

6.     The  Resin-Lime  Mixture 
One  of  the  difficulties  in  using  many  of  the  insecticides 
and  fungicides  is  that  they  do  not  adhere  well  to  the  smooth 
foliage  of  the  plants.    The  resin-lime  mixture  is  often  used 


GARDEN  AND  ORCHARD  SPRAYS         215 

in  combination  with  other  compounds  to  insure  their  stick-, 
ing  to  the  plants  until  they  have  done  their  work. 
Composition. — The  formula  employed  is : 

5  pounds  of  pulverized  resin. 

1  pound  of  concentrated  lie. 

1  pint  of  fish  or  some  other  animal  oil. 

5  gallons   of  water. 

This  mixture  is  the  stock  solution,  which  is  still  further 
diluted  as  used. 

Making  the  mixture. — The  oil,  resin  and  one  gallon 
of  cold  water  are  to  be  put  into  an  iron  kettle  and  heated 
until  the  resin  softens.  Add  the  lime  and  stir  well.  Then 
add  four  gallons  of  hot  water  and  boil  until  a  little  mixed 
with  cold  water  gives  a  clear  amber-colored  liquid.  Add 
water  to  make  up  for  what  has  boiled  away,  making  five 
gallons  of  the  compound. 

Use. — This  spray,  besides  causing  other  mixtures  to 
adhere  to  the  foliage  of  plants,  is  itself  an  excellent  contact 
insecticide.  Its  principal  eflfect  is  through  making  a  smoth- 
ering coating  over  the  body  of  the  insect.  It  is  used  in 
some  regions  as  a  dormant  wash  for  the  control  of  scale 
insects.  When  used  with  Paris  green  or  Bordeaux,  two 
gallons  of  resin-lime  compound  are  mixed  with  eight  gal- 
lons of  water,  and  this  added  to  forty  gallons  of  the  spray. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Copper  sulphate  costs  from  seven  to  ten  cents  a 
pound,  and  lime,  when  bought  in  small  quantities,  about 
fifteen  cents  a  pound.  What,  then,  should  be  the  outlay  in 
making  fifty  gallons  of  Bordeaux  mixture?  What  would  it 
cost  for  material  to  spray  ten  apple  trees  averaging  a 
twenty-five-foot  spread  ? 

2.  Under  the  direction  of  the  teacher  and  with  great 
care  in  handling  both  before  and  after  mixing,  let  the  class 


216  .  AGRICULTURE 

•join  in  making  up  a  Bordeaux  mixture,  substituting  one 
ounce  for  each  pound  of  the  ingredients  in  the  formula,  and 
a  corresponding  amount  of  water.  What  is  the  color  of  the 
compound  ?  Will  it  keep  indefinitely  if  covered  to  save  evap- 
oration ? 

3.  Make  a  lime-sulphur  mixture,  reducing  the  amounts 
as  before  to  one  ounce  for  each  pound  of  ingredients. 

4.  Make  up  a  kerosene  emulsion,  using  one  pint  of 
kerosene  and  a  corresponding  amount  of  other  ingredients. 

5.  Secure  catalogs  describing  spraying  machines,  ex- 
amine the  different  makes,  and  decide  which  is  best  for 
the  use  you  would  require  in  your  home  garden  and  or- 
chard. If  uncertain  write  your  state  agricultural  college 
about  it. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

HOME  CANNING  OF  FRUITS  AND  VEGE- 
TABLES 

IT  is  both  practicable  and  economical  to  can  the  surplus 
vegetables,  fruit,  sweet  corn,  greens  and  other  such  prod- 
ucts that  commonly  go  to  waste  in  the  orchard,  field  and 
garden. 

1.    Home  Canned  Products  and  the  Table 

When  the  farm  home  has  learned  to  can  its  surplus 
fresh  food  products,  then  the  family  can  have  a  balanced 
ration  every  day  in  the  year,  and  the  cost  of  living  will  be 
greatly  reduced. 

Home  canned  foods. — The  average  farm  family 
should  plan  to  have  for  table  use  from  the  home-canned 
supply  one  quart  of  vegetables,  one  quart  of  fruit  and  one 
quart  of  greens  for  every  day  in  the  year  when  these  foods 
are  not  available  in  the  garden.  The  ration  based  on  these 
foods  and  supplemented  by  meats  is  better  balanced  and  less 
expensive  than  one  based  on  meats  with  a  scarcity  of  fruits 
and  vegetables.  Such  a  system  will  have  a  tendency  to  cut 
down  both  the  doctor's  bills  and  the  grocery  bills,  and  will 
furnish  a  more  palatable  diet. 

The  elimination  of  waste. — The  importance  of  home 
canning  is  still  more  fully  realized  when  we  stop  to  con- 
sider that  in  most  states  probably  one-half  of  all  the  fruit 
and  vegetables  raised  are  allowed  to  go  to  waste.  They  are 
not  needed  for  immediate  consumption,  and  methods  of 
grading,  crating  and  marketing  are  not  understood.  Home 
canning  will  save  all  of  this  waste. 

217 


218  AGRICULTURE 

Successful  canning  not  difficult. — By  following  simple 
recipes  and  time-tables  for  sterilization,  even  children  can. 
successfully  can  anything  that  grows  in  the  garden,  field  or 
orchard.    Once  canned  the  product  has  a  money  value,  and 
is  as  standard  in  the  market  as  sugar  or  nails. 

Canning  fruits. — The  list  of  receipts  and  time-tables 
given  in  this  chapter  are  made  to  be  used  in  connection 
with  the  usual  home  canning  utensils,  and  with  four  distinct 
types  of  canning  outfits.  Such  outfits  are  not  expensive. 
They  can  be  bought  all  the  way  from  eighty-nine  cents 
up  to  twenty  dollars,  depending  on  type  and  size.  All  kinds 
of  glass  jars,  bottles  and  tin  cans  commonly  used  in  the  old 
methods  of  canning  can  be  used  with  these  newer  devices. 
(Write  for  Farmers'  Bulletin  521  and  other  circulars  of 
instruction  on  canning,  for  description  of  canning  outfits, 
and  full  directions  for  their  use.) 

2.     Canning  Recipes  for  Fruits  and  Vegetables 

These  recipes  have  been  carefully  planned  and  tested  by 
experts,  and  should  be  followed  with  great  care  if  the  best 
results  are  to  be  obtained. 

Tomatoes. — Grade  for  ripeness,  size  and  quality. 
Scald  to  loosen  skins.  Dip  in  cold  water ;  remove  skins ; 
pack  whole.  Fill  with  tomatoes  only  and  add  1  level  tea- 
spoonful  salt  to  each  quart  Place  rubber  and  partially  seal. 
(Cap  and  tip  tins.)  Sterilize  thirty-two  minutes  in  hot- 
water  bath,  twenty-two  minutes  in  water-seal  outfit,  fifteen 
minutes  under  five  pounds  of  steam,  or  ten  minutes  in 
pressure  Cooker.  Remove  jars,  tighten  covers,  and  invert 
to  cool. 

Strawberries. — 1.  Can  fresh,  sound  berries  same  day 
picked.  Hull  (twist  berries  off  hull)  ;  place  in  strainer,  pour 
water  over  to  cleanse.  Pack  in  jar  or  tin  without  crushing. 
Pour  hot  sirup  over  berries  to  top.  Place  rubber  and  top 
and  partially  tighten.     (Cap  and  tip  tins.)     Sterilize  sixteen 


A  practical  canning  kitchen. 


Two  tj'pes  of  canninu   outfit-;    (a)   the  water  seal;    (b)   the 
steam  pressure  type,  used  by  a  canning  club  girl. 


220  AGRICULTURE  . 

.minutes  in  hot-water  batb,  6  minutes  under  5  pounds  of 
steam,  10  minutes  in  water-seal  outfit,  or  5  minutes  in 
pressure  cooker. 

(Sirup:  1>^  qts.  sugar  to  1  qt.  water,  boiled  to  medium 
thick.) 

Strawberries. — 2.  Same  as  above  except  sirup.  Sirup : 
Crush  berries  for  1  quart  natural  juice,  add  1  qt.  sugar,  boil 
to  medium  thick  sirup.    Add  as  in  No.  1. 

Strawberries. — Sun  preserves.  Select  ripe,  firm  ber- 
ries. Pick  and  preserve  same  day.  Hull  and  rinse  as  in 
No.  1.  Place  in  shallow  platter  in  single  layer;  sprinkle 
sugar  over  them;  pour  over  them  40-degree  sirup  (same  as 
No.  1  boiled  thicker).  Cover  with  glass  dish  or  window 
pane.  Allow  to  cook  in  hot  sun  6  to  10  hours.  Pack  in 
glasses,  jars,  or  cups;  tie  paper  over  tops.  (Paraffin  or 
sealing  wax.)     Keep  in  cool  dry  place. 

Carrots,  parsnips,  sweet  potatoes,  etc. — Scald  from  1 
to  5  minutes  in  boiling  water.  Plunge  in  cold  water.  Re- 
move skins ;  pack  whole  or  sliced ;  add  boiling  water  and 
1  level  teaspoonful  salt  to  each  quart.  Place  rubber  and  top 
and  partially  tighten.  (Cap  and  tip  tins.)  Process  1^ 
hours  in  hot-water  bath,  1  hour,  15  minutes  in  water  seal,  1 
hour  under  5  pounds  of  steam,  or  30  minutes  in  pressure 
cooker. 

Eggplant. — Scald  5  minutes  in  slightly  salt  boiling 
water ;  plunge  in  cold  water ;  remove  skins.  Slice  cross- 
wise and  pack ;  add  boiling  water  and  1  level  teaspoonful 
of  salt  to  each  pint.  Place  rubber  and  top  and  partially 
tighten.  (Cap  and  tin  tins.)  Process  1  hour  in  hot-water 
bath,  50  minutes  in  water-seal  outfit,  45,  in  5  lbs.  of  steam 
pressure,  or  30  minutes  in  pressure  cooker.  Remove 
jars,  tighten  covers,  and  invert  to  cool. 

Sweet  corn,  on  the  cob. — Blanch  in  boiling  water  10 
minutes,  plunge  quickly  in  cold  water.  Pack,  alternating 
butts  and  tips ;  add  boiling  water  and  1  level  teaspoonful  of 
salt  to  each  quart.  Place  rubber  and  top  and  partially 
tighten.  (Cap  and  tip  tins.)  Process  180  to  240  minutes 
in  hot-water  bath,  Ij/i  hours  water-seal  outfit,  60  minutes 
under  5  pounds  of  steam,  or  45  minutes  in  pressure  cooker. 
Remove  jars,  tighten  covers,  invert  and  cool. 

Sweet  corn,  off  the  cob. — Same  as  above,  except  cut 


HOME  CANNING  221 

from  cob  after  blanching.  Pack  and  fill  jars  with  boiling 
water,  adding  1  level  teaspoonful  salt  to  each  pint.  Pro- 
ceed as  above. 

Peas,  beans,  etc. — Blanch  3  minutes  in  boiling 
water;  plunge  in  cold  water.  Pack  and  add  boiling  water 
and  1  level  teaspoonful  salt  to  each  quart.  Place  rubber 
and  top  and  partially  tighten  top.  (Cap  and  tip  tins.) 
Process  1>4  hours  in  hot-water  bath,  1  hour  in  water-seal, 
1  hour  under  5  pounds  of  steam,  or  35  minutes  in  pressure 
cooker. 

Chards,  beets,  turnips,  etc. — Scald  1  to  6  minutes  in 
boiling  water;  plunge  in  cold  water,  remove  skins.  Slice 
and  pack ;  add  boiling  water  and  1  level  teaspoonful  salt  for 
each  pint.  Place  rubber  and  top  and  partially  tighten. 
(Cap  and  tip  tins.)  Process  1^^  hours  in  hot-water  bath, 
l}i  hours  in  water-seal,  1  hour  under  5  pounds  of  steam, 
or  40  minutes  in  pressure  cooker.  Remove  jars,  tighten 
covers,  and  invert  to  cool. 

Greens,  (spinach,  dandelion,  mustard,  beet  tops,  etc.) 
— Blanch  in  boiling  water  10  minutes,  plunge  in  cold  water. 
Cut  ready  for  table  use.  Process  10  minutes  in  open  ket- 
tle to  shrink;  season  with  slice  of  bacon  or  chips  of  dried 
beef  for  each  pint.  Pack,  add  hot  water  and  a  little  salt  to 
each  quart.  Place  rubber  and  top  and  partially  tighten. 
(Cap  and  tip  tins.)  Process  60  minutes  in  hot-water  bath 
or  water-seal  outfit,  40  minutes  under  5  pounds  of  steam, 
30  minutes  in  pressure  cooker.  Remove,  tighten  covers, 
and  invert  to  cool. 

It  is  always  advisable  to  cook  the  greens  a  short  time 
before  packing  in  order  to  reduce  the  bulk. 

Windfall  apples. — For  the  canning  of  whole  apples 
select  firm,  not  over-ripe  apples.  A  great  difference  in  the 
canned  products  will  be  noted  in  the  different  varieties  of 
apples.  The  recipe  is  intended  for  firm  and  preferably  tart 
varieties.  Some  varieties  will  require  less  time  and  some 
more.     Experience  will  teach  adjustment  of  time. 

Remove  blemished,  cut  out  core.  Blanch  for  2  minutes 
in  boiling  water;  plunge  in  cold  water.  Pack  in  tin  cans 
or  glass  jars  and  add  just -a  little  very  thin  sirup.  Place 
rubber  and  top  and  partially  tighten.  (Cap  and  tip  tins.) 
Process  20  minutes  in  hot-water  bath,  15  minutes  in  water- 


222  AGRICULTURE 

seal,  10  minutes  in  steam  pressure  outfit,  or  4  minutes  in 
pressure  cooker.  Remove  jars,  tighten  covers,  and  invert 
to  cool. 

Windfall  apples  for  pie  filling. — Peel  and  core.  Slice ; 
scald  Iminute  in  boiling  water;  plunge  in  cold  w^ater.  Pack 
in  glass  or  tin,  and  add  about  one  teacupful  of  hot,  thin 
sirup  to  each  quart.  Place  rubber  and  top,  partially 
tighten.  (Cap  and  tip  tins.)  Sterilize  16  minutes  in  hot- 
water  bath,  12  minutes  in  water-seal  outfit,  10  minutes  un- 
der 5  pounds  of  steam,  or  4  minutes  in  pressure  cooker. 
Remove  jars,  tighten  covers,  invert  to  cool. 

Blanching. — After  blanching  plunge  in  cold  water  and 
pack  quickly.* 

1.  Blanch  peas,  beans,  etc.,  5  minutes. 

2.  Blanch  corn  on  cob,  5  to  15  minutes. 

3.  Blanch  pumpkin,  squash,  mangoes,  about  5  minutes. 

4.  Blanch  okra,  cabbage,  sweet  potatoes,  5  minutes. 

5.  Blanch  asparagus,  spinach,  kale,  etc.,  5  to  10  minutes. 

6.  Blanch  rhubarb,  beet  tops,  etc.,  1  to  3  minutes. 

7.  Blanch  or  scald  beets,  carrots,  turnips,  etc.,  6  min- 
utes. 

8.  Scald  tomatoes,  plums,  pears,  etc.,  1  to  2  minutes. 

9.  Scald  peaches,  apricots,  1  to  2  minutes. 
Reasons. — Scalding:   (1)    To    remove    skins    without 

loss  of  pulp;  (2)  to  eliminate  objectionable  acids;  (3)  to 
arrest  flow  of  coloring  matter. 

Blanching. —  (1)  To  eliminate  objectionable  acids;  (2) 
to  set  coloring  matter;  (3)  to  make  texture  firm  for  ster- 
ilization. 

Cold  Dip. — (1)  To  separate  skin  from  pulp;  (2)  to  set 
color  bodies;   (3)  to  render  packing  easier. 

3.    Time  Table  for  Home  Canning  of  Foods 

To  be  followed  in  the  use  of  the  four  different  types  of 
portable  home  canners.  For  altitudes  of  4,000  feet  or  more 
above  sea  level,  add  about  20  per  cent,  or  25  per  cent,  more 
time  to  this  schedule. 

*  Cook  greens,  cabbage,  chard,  etc.,  about  20  minutes  before 
packing  to  reduce  bulk. 


HOME  CANNING      '  223 


Time  Schedule  for  Canning. 
Products  to  be  Canned. 


S'H  *, 


"T     fe!     ^1  1.2 


~5  M  fe 


03 


«    O 


•go         rt«      owe        "■ 


Min.  Min.  Min.  Min. 

Apples    3  15  15  10  4 

Apricots    3  IS  12  10  6 

Asparagus . 2  or  3  60  60  40  30 

Apple   cider  2  or  3  20  15  12  6 

Beans,   lima  and   string 2  or  3  120  90  60  30 

Blackberries,    Dewberries 2  or  3  12  8  6  4 

Cherries,    Peaches    2  15  12  10  5 

Corn,  on  or  off  cob 2  240  180  60  40 

Grapes,  Pears,  Plums 2  20  IS  10  6 

Hominy    3  60  SO  40  35 

Huckleberries    2  10  8  6  5 

Okra   -  2  or  3  60  60  40  35 

Okra  and   tomatoes   cbmbined 2  or  3  SO  SO  40  35 

Oysters     1  60  50  40  35 

Peas  (field)  2  90  90  40  35 

Peas   (garden  or  English) 2  90  60  40  35 

Pineapple    2  or  3  30  25  10  6 

Raspberries    2  or  3  15  10  6  4 

Sauerkraut    3  SO  SO  40  25 

Sausage    2  60  60  40  35 

Sweet    potatoes    . 3  180  90  60  40 

Strawberries    3  12  10  8  5 

Succotash    2  or  3  60  60  40  30 

Tomatoes    2  or  3  32  22  10  6 

Tomatoes  and  corn 2  80,  70  60  40 

Grape  juice   2  15  15  10  5 

Quince    3  30  25  15  10 

Tomato    juice    2  20  20  15  10 

Pumpkin     3  SO  SO  40  30 

Fish,   Pork   2  200  200  120  60 

16 


224 


AGRICULTURE 


Time   Schedule   for    Canning. 
Products  to  be  Canned. 


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240 

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40 

3 

30 

20 

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90 

60 

40 

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Chicken,    beef- 
Figs   

Squash    

Spinach    

Other   greens   . 

Rhubard    

Beets     


PART  III.    SOIL 


CHAPTER  XV 
NATURE  OF  SOIL 

IN  our  discussion  of  plants  and  crops  we  have  constantly 
referred  to  the  soil.  What  is  soilf  Whence  does 
it  come?  What  relation  does  it  bear  to  plant  life,  and  hence 
to  our  own  lives?  Take  a  handful  of  "dirt"  and  crumble 
it  between  your  fingers;  of  what  does  it  consist,  what  is 
its  nature? 

1.     Origin  of  the  Soil 

Soil  did  not  always  exist  as  it  is  to-day.  When  the  earth 
was  young  and  the  crust  was  forming  there  was  no  soil. 
There  was  only  rock.  And  it  is  out  of  the  weathering  of 
this  surface  rock  that  the  soil  has  come ;  and  the  process  is 
still  going  on  whenever  rock  is  exposed.  Soil  is  but  par- 
ticles of  rock,  to  which  has  been  added  organic  matter  com- 
ing from  the  plants  and  animals  that  have  lived  on  it  or  in  it. 

The  weathering  of  rock. — Rock  is  made  into  soil  by 
two  different  processes,  disintegration  and  decomposition. 
By  disintegration  is  meant  the  breaking  up  of  rock  into 
small  particles  without  changing  their  nature.  By  decom- 
position is  meant  such  breaking  up  by  chemical  action  that 
the  nature  of  the  particles  is  changed. 

The  chief  agencies  causing  the  disintegration  of  rocks 
are  sudden  changes  of  temperature  and  the  action  of  frost. 

225 


226  AGRICULTURE 

When  masses  of  rock  are  heated  by  the  sun  they  expand; 
sudden  cooling  at  night  or  from  change  of  weather  causes 
so  rapid  a  contraction  that  they  are  rent  asunder.  Water 
freezing  in  crevices  also  constantly  breaks  masses  of  rock 
into  smaller  pieces. 

Rocks  undergo  decomposition  largely  through  changes 
due  to  the  action  of  chemicals  carried  in  water.  The  min- 
eral substances  in  the  rocks  are  dissolved,  and  new  prod- 
ucts formed. 


A  plowing  contest. 

Surface  and  subsoil. — The  terms  soil  and  subsoil  are 
often  used  to  distinguish  the  top  portion  from  the  soil  that 
lies  underneath.  The  line  between  the  dark  humus-colored 
part  and  the  lighter  soil  b'^low-  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the 
division  between  soil  and  subsoil.  Another  distinction  made 
is  to  call  all  that  lies  below  the  depth  of  tillage  subsoil.  No 
such  dividing  line  can  be  sharply  drawn,  however,  as  much 
organic  matter  is  found  below  the  humus  line,  and  the  depth 
of  tillage  does  not  mark  a  natural  division  in  layers  of  the 


NATURE  OF  SOIL  227 

soil.    Surface  soil  differs  from  subsoil  chiefly  in  the  organic 
matter  it  contains. 

2.     Organic  Matter  in  Soil 

Examine  carefully  a  lump  of  common  field  soil.  Pul- 
verize it  and  spread  it  out  on  a  paper.  In  addition  to  the 
grains  of  sand,  silt  and  clay  which  represent  the  rock  por- 
tions, note  all  the  different  organic  particles,  such  as  pieces 
of  roots,  fibers  of  plants,  and  parts  of  insects.  Place  it 
under  a  magnifier,  and  see  whether  you  can  make  still  fur- 
ther discoveries. 

Need  of  organic  matter. — Although  the  rock  particles 
make  up  far  the  greater  part  of  the  mass  of  the  soil,  or- 
ganic matter  is  of  the  highest  importance  to  plants.  Indeed, 
it  is  practically  impossible  to  raise  crops  on  soil  lacking 
organic  constituents.  All  the  upper  layers  of  ordinary  soil 
contain  from  two  to  five  per  cent,  of  organic  material,  com- 
ing chiefly  from  the  roots  and  stems  of  plants. 

Humus. — When  vegetation  decays  on  top  of  the 
ground  it  is  really  burned  up  as  effectually  as  if  put  into  a 
stove,  only  more  slowly.  The  gases  pass  off  into  the  air 
and  only  a  slight  ash  remains  on  the  soil.  From  this  proc- 
ess the  soil  receives  comparatively  little  benefit.  If,  how- 
ever, decay  takes  place  under  the  surface,  where  but  little 
oxygen  is  present,  a  substance  is  produced  which  is  called 
humus.  All  soil  on  which  plants  are  grown  is  therefore 
constantly  producing  humus  from  the  roots,  and  from  the 
stubble  and  stems  if  these  are  turned  under.  Dig  up  a  piece 
of  timothy  sod  and  note  the  mass  of  roots — ^about  two  tons 
of  roots  to  the  acre  on  a  good  field.  Blue-grass  yields  some 
six  tons  of  roots  to  the  acre.  Soils  that  are  cropped  contin^ 
uously  with  the  common  cereals  and  the  crops  removed  with- 
out returning  manure  to  the  field  become  deficient  in  humus, 
and  the  yield  is  decreased. 


228  AGRICULTURE 

,  Effects  of  humus  in  the  soil. — The  most  easily  noted 
effect  of  humus  is  in  the  darkening  of  the  soil.  The  so- 
called  "black"  soils  get  their  color  from  the  abundance  of 
humus  they  contain.  The  coloring  is  accomplished  by  the 
partially  decayed  and  partially  preserved  black  organic  mat- 
ter coating  over  the  small  particles  of  the  soil.  The  depth 
to  which  humus  extends,  ranging  from  a  few  inches  to  sev- 
eral feet,  can  be  noted  at  any  wayside  ditch  by  the  line  be- 
tween the  dark  soil  on  top  and  the  lighter  soil  beneath. 
Humus  serves  several  very  important  uses  in  the  soil: 

(1)  it  acts  as  a  storehouse  for  different  kinds  of  plant  food; 

(2)  it  increases  the  capacity  of  the  soil  to  hold  water;  (3) 
it  aids  in  conserving  heat  in  the  soil;  (4)  it  favors  the 
growth  of  bacteria  helpful  to  plants;  (5)  it  improves  the 
physical  condition  of  the  soil,  making  it  more  porous  and 
easily  cultivated. 

Living  organisms. — Reference  has  already  been  made 
to  the  influence  of  certain  bacteria  in  the  fixing  of  nitrogen 
in  the  soil.  The  soil  harbors  many  different  kinds  of  bac- 
teria and  other  organisms.  It  is  fairly  teeming  with  life, 
some  of  which  is  hostile  to  plant  growth,  but  more  of  which 
is  necessary  to  successful  plant  development. 

Other  organic  matter. — Besides  living  organic  matter 
and  that  which  has  undergone  chemical  changes  converting 
it  into  humus,  most  soils  contain  a  certain  amount  of  veg- 
etable matter  in  the  form  of  roots  and  stems  of  plants 
which  have  not  yet  begun  the  process  of  decomposition. 
These  affect  the  soil  chiefly  in  making  it  more  accessible 
to  air  and  light,  and  more  permeable  to  water. 

3.    Texture  of  Soils 
Secure  samples  of  three  different  field  soils,  (1)  a  clay 
soil,  (2)  a  silt  soil,  and  (3)  a  sandy  soil.     Place  one  inch 
deep  of  each  of  these  in  a  bottIe>    Now  fill  all  three  bottles 


NATURE  OF  SOIL  229 

>\ 

with  water  and  shake  for  several  minutes.  Set  the  bottles 
in  a  quiet  place  and  let  the  contents  settle.  Note  which 
soil  settles  to  the  bottom  most  quickly.  Keep  a  record  of 
the  time  required  for  water  to  become  clear  in  each  bottle. 

Meaning  of  texture. — By  texture  of  soil  is  meant 
the  degree  of  fineness  or  coarseness  of  the  particles  of  which 
it  is  composed.  The  finest  soil  particles,  which  will  remain 
in  suspension  clouding  water  for  hours,  are  'called  clay.  The 
next  finest,  which  will  settle  in  about  one  hour,  are  silt.  The 
coarser  particles,  which  will  settle  almost  at  once,  are  called 
sand  or  gravel. 

Most  crop  soils  have  all  three  of  these  grades  or  sizes  of 
particles  in  their  make-up.  The  texture  of  the  soil  depends 
on  the  proportion  of  each  in  the  mixture.  Soils  are  named 
in  accordance  with  the  particular  one  of  these  elements  that 
preponderates. 

If  the  very  fine  particles  are  in  excess,  we  speak  of  a 
clay  soil;  if  the  texture  is  intermediate,  of  a  loam  soil;  and 
if  coarse,  of  a  sandy  or  gravelly  soil.  We  also  use  the  terms 
clay  loam,  silt  loam  and  sandy  loam  to  describe  the  texture. 

Composition  of  three  soil  types. — A  mechanical  an- 
alysis of  three  types  of  soil  texture  made  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  shows  the  following  pro- 
portions of  soil  particles  in  each:  , 

Very- 
Fine     C'se     Med.  Fine    fine 
Type  of  soil  gravel  sand     sand  sand  sand     Silt     Clay 

Norfolk  sand  (truck  soil)— 3%       15%    22%    38%      10%      8%      4% 
Wabash  clay  (river  bottom)_0  1%      1%     3%        7%     49%     37% 

Silt    Loam  (corn    soil) 0  1%     1%     2%        8%     73%     15% 

From  this  table  it  is  seen  that  Norfolk  sand,  which  is 
an  excellent  soil  for  truck  gardening  on  the  Atlantic,  is 
eighty-eight  per  cent,  sand  and  gravel,  and  only  twelve  per 


230  AGRICULTURE 

<fent.  silt  and  clay  combined.  Middle  western  silt  loam, 
such  as  grows  most  of  our  be$t  corn,  is  three-fourths  silt, 
and  fifteen  per  cent,  clay  and  twelve  per  cent.  sand.  River- 
bottom,  clay  soils  are  slightly  more  than  one-third  clay,  and 
almost  one-half  silt. 

4.     Structure  of  Soils 

Take  a  piece  of  clay  in  your  hand.  Try  to  crumble  it 
into  small  particles.  Do  the  same  with  a  piece  of  loam; 
with  a  lump  of  sandy  soil.  Note  that  some  soils  plow  up 
in  great  clods,  while  others  break  up  into  small  pieces,  pro- 
ducing what  is  called  a  mellow  condition.  Have  you  no- 
ticed that  in  some  places  the  ground  cakes  and  cracks  open 
when  it  becomes  very  dry,  while  in  other  places  it  remains 
soft  and  unbroken  no. matter  how  dry  it  becomes?  These 
differences  are  a  matter  of  soil  structure. 

Soil  structure. — By  soil  structure  is  meant  the  mode 
in  which  particles  adhere  to  one  another,  causing  them  to 
cling  together  in  solid  masses  hard  to  break  up,  or  forming 
but  loosely  joined  lumps  easily  pulverized. 

Clay  soils  are  of  a  heavy,  dense,  clinging  structure,  dif- 
ficult to  break  apart,  and  hence  hard  to  plow.  Silt  loams 
and  sand  loams,  on  the  other  hand,  are  friable;  that  is, 
they  are  easily  broken  up.  They  plow  or  pulverize  easily 
because  they  are  not  so  adhesive.  All  soils  that  are  lacking 
in  humus  tend  to  become  dense  and  resisting  in  structure. 

Causes  affecting  soil  structure. — The  chief  adhesive 
force  holding  soil  particles  together  in  clusters,  grains,  or 
lumps  is  the  water  films  that  surround  the  particles.  Each 
separate. particle  is  covered  by  a  thin  film  of  water,  whose 
effect  is  much  the  same  as  a  film  pf  rubber.  Let  a  number 
of  small  soil  particles,  each  suifounded  by  its  water  film, 
come  into  contact,  and  their  individual  films  all  merge  into 


NATURE  OF  SOIL  231 

one,  which  by  its  tension  unites  these  particles  in  a  single 
granule,  or  cluster.  These  clusters  are  in  similar  way  joined 
into  still  larger  clusters,  and  so  on  until,  in  fine  clay  soils, 
one  continuous  mass  is  formed.  As  clay  soils  dry  out  the 
films  break,  shrinkage  occurs,  and  cracks  open. 

The  greater  adhesive  power  of  clay  soils  is  because  of 
the  fineness  of  their  particles.  The  larger  the  number  of 
particles  in  a  given  mass  of  soil,  the  greater  the  aggregate 
surface  of  these  particles,  and  hence  the  greater  the  amount 
of  water  films  to  bind  the  particles  together.  Sandy  soils 
do  not  form  into  granules,  or  lumps,  because  the  aggre- 
gate surface  of  the  particles  is  not  sufficient  to  supply  the 
binding  force  of  water  films  necessary  to  hold  them  together. 

It  has  been  carefully  estimated  that  the  particles  of  a 
cubic  foot  of  soils  of  different  textures  have  the  following 
amounts  of  surface : 

Coarse  sandy  loam 40,000  square  feet. 

Sandy  loam 65,000      " 

Silt  loam 100,000      " 

Clay  soil 150,000      " 

From  these  comparisons  it  is  clear  that  the  water  films 
are  several  times  greater  in  area  in  clay  soils  than  sandy 
soils,  and  hence  the  tendency  to  adhesiveness  in  clay  soils 
is  correspondingly  increased. 

Soil  structure  and  tilth. — You  have  seen  some  seed 
beds  that  were  granular  or  full  of  lumps,  with  very  little 
fine  earth  for  packing  about  the  seeds.  Others  are  finely 
pulverized,  and  favorable  for  plant  growth.  The  condition 
presented  by  the  soil  with  reference  to  plant  growth  is 
called  its  tilth. 

Tilth  depends  chiefly  on  soil  structure.  Dense  heavy 
soils  that  have  a  tendency  to  form  into  lumps  when  plowed, 
or  that  easily  bake  after  rain,  make  it  difficult  to  maintain  a 


232  AGRICULTURE 

^ood  tilth.  On  the  other  hand,  a  good  tilth  is  equally  hard 
to  maintain  on  soils  that  easily  burn  out  in  a  drought,  or 
that  for  any  reason  are  not  good  reservoirs  of  water. 

5.    Erosion  of  the  Soil 

Note  the  color  of  the  soil  on  some  cultivated  hilltop 
and  on  the  lower  ground  at  the  foot. 

1.  Why  is. the  color  on  the  hilltop  lighter?  Why  is 
the  crop  yield  less?  Are  there  any  slopes  near  by  with 
gullies  washed  out  ? 

2.  Have  you  seen  sheets  of  soft  earth  which  have  been 
carried  by  the  wash  from  heavy  rains  and  spread  over  low 
ground  or  along  the  courses  of  streams?  Where  does  this 
soil  come  from  ?  What  is  its  texture,  fine  or  coarse  ?  What 
is  the  structure  of  this  overflow  soil,  heavy  and  dense,  or 
friable?  Is  such  soil  fertile?  Must  this  fertility  be  lost 
from  the  ground  from  which  the  wash  came? 

3.  Have  you  ever  seen  banks  of  soil  built  by  the  car- 
rying of  soil  particles  in  the  wind  ?  Great  masses  of  wind- 
built  soil,  called  loess,  are  to  be  found  in  Illinois,  Wisconsin, 
Iowa,  eastern  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  and  northern  Mis- 
souri.    These  loessial  soils  consist  chiefly  of  silt. 

4.  Which  loses  more  soil  from  the  action  of  the  wind, 
hilltops  or  valleys?  In  certain  western  plains  regions  as 
much  as  an  inch  of  top  soil  is  sometimes  removed  in  a  single 
dust  storm  lasting  twelve  hours. 

Nature  of  erosion. — By  erosion  is  meant  the  wearing 
or  carrying  away  of  soil  by  the  action  of  running  water  and 
the  wind.  Erosion  by  running  water  takes  place  in  some 
degree  on  all  slopes ;  the  hills  are  gradually  but  constantly 
being  carried  into  the  valleys.  But  it  is  on  the  steep  hillsides 
where  the  velocity  of  the  water  i^  greatest  that  most  damage 
is  done.  The  reason  for  this  is  easily  seen  when  it  is  re- 
membered that  the  transporting  power  of  water  increases 


NATURE  OF  SOIL 


233 


as  the  sixth  power  of  its  velocity.  This  means  that  doubling 
its  velocity  increases  the  carrying  power  sixty-four  times ; 
trebling  its  velocity  increases  the  carrying  power  seven  hun- 
dred and  twenty-nine  times,  and  so  on. 

The  texture  of  the  soil  has  much  to  do  with  erosion. 
All  soils  that  permit  ready  absorption  of  water,  as  from 
rains  or  melting  snow,  leave  less  to  run  over  the  surface, 
and  so  are  less  subject  to  erosion  than  dense  clay  soils. 

Effects  of  water  erosion. — Erosion  by  running  water 


Au  Illinois  field,  showiug  tlie  effects  of  water  erosion. 

not  only  produces  gullies  and  ditches  that  interfere  with 
cultivation,  but  greatly  reduces  the  fertility  of  hilltops  and 
slopes  by  general  surface  washing.  For  it  is  the  best  parts 
of  the  soil  that  are  carried  away  by  erosion.  Organic 
matter  is  relatively  light,  and  so  floats  off ;  the  finer  clay 
and  silt  particles  which,  as  we  have  seen,  will  remain  long 
in  suspension  in  water,  are  carried  away,  and  the  coarser 


234  AGRICULTURE 

portions  left  behind.  And  it  is  just  this  organic  matter  and 
the  finer  soil  particles  that  contain  the  best  part  of  the  plant 
food.  No  wonder  then  that  the  hilltops  have  a  thin  poor 
soil,  and  that  the  valleys  are  noted  for  their  fertility. 

Prevention  of  erosion. — While  soil  erosion  can  not  be 
wholly  prevented,  it  can  be  greatly  checked.  And  nature 
suggests  one  effective  remedy  in  covering  all  soil  with  vege- 
tation. It  is  bare  soil  that  washes  and  blows  away.  Even 
a  steep  hillside  when  covered  with  grass  is  reasonably  free 
from  erosion.  For  the  stems  tend  to  delay  the  downward 
rush  of  water,  thus  causing  it  to  soak  into  the  ground,  and 
the  roots  bind  the  soil  together.  This  indicates  that  steep 
slopes  should  be  used  for  pasturage  and  meadows  rather 
than  for  cropping.  The  addition  of  organic  matter  in  the 
form  of  manure  also  lessens  the  danger  from  washing,  since 
it  increases  the  capacity  of  the  soil  to  absorb  water,  and 
also  tends  to  bind  the  soil  together. 

Hillsides  when  tilled  should  be  plowed  along  the  slope 
rather  than  up  and  down,  and  in  some  sections  it  is  neces- 
sary to  terrace  the  hillsides.  This  delays  the  forming  of 
rivulets  and  favors  absorption  of  water.  Every  furrow 
leading  down  the  hill  is  the  beginning  of  a  gully  in  heavy 
rains.  Even  the  marks  left  by  the  wheels  of  a  corn  planter, 
unless  leveled  over  by  harrowing,  will  serve  as  water  chan- 
nels and  result  in  waste  of  soil  and  washing  out  of  the  seed 
or  plants. 

Gullies  once  started  should  be  leveled  immediately  by 
use  of  the  plow  or  other  form  of  cultivation.  Packs  of 
straw,  hay,  or  manure  at  the  head  of  the  channel,  or  at 
intervals  along  its  course,  will  do  much  to  stop  the  erosion, 
if  used  in  time.  Sheet,  or  s^urfai:e,  washing  is,  however,  a 
source  of  greater  damage  tlian  the  formation  of  gullies. 
For  sheet  erosion,  though  gradual,  is  constant  on  the  slopes 
of  all  tilled  fields. 


NATURE  OF  SOIL  235 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Select  a  spot  on  your  home  farm  representing  its 
typical  soil,  dig  down  with  a  spade  or  soil  auger  and  take 
two  samples,  one  from  a  depth  of  six  inches,  and  one  of 
twenty  inches.  How  do  the  samples  differ  (1)  as  to  texture, 
(2)  as  to  organic  matter,  (3)  as  to  structure?  How  deep 
does  the  humus  extend?  Bring  samples  to  school,  and 
compare  with  those  from  the  different  farms  represented. 

2.  Place  some  of  each  sample  in  a  bottle  or  glass  of 
water  and  mix  well.  Allow  the  sand  to  settle  (How  long?), 
and  pour  the  water  off  the  top  into  a  third  receptable.  Allow 
the  clay  to  settle  until  the  water  becomes  clear.  (How  long 
is  required  ?)  Now  determine  as  nearly  as  you  can  what  is 
the  proportion  of  clay,  silt  and  sand  in  the  soils.  How  would 
you  name  the  texture  of  the  soil  on  your  farm  ? 

3.  Secure  a  sample  of  the  soil  from  some  cultivated  hill- 
top, and  examine  it  for  its  texture,  structure  and  the 
amount  of  organic  matter.  Compare  with  another  sample 
taken  from  the  foot  of  the  hill.  Explain  the  difference  in 
color.  Dig  down  with  a  spade  and  compare  the  depth  to 
which  the  humus  extends  in  each  case. 

4.  Are  there  any  cultivated  hills  on  your  farm  steep 
enough  that  erosion  is  considerable?  If  so,  how  does 
the  yield  on  the  hill  compare  with  the  lower  land?  Are 
there  any  gullies  forming?  If  so,  how  long  have  they  been 
washing  out  ?    What  is  being  done  to  stop  them  ? 

5.  Determine  what  kind  of  soil  there  is  in  your  school 
yard,  such  as  silt  loam,  clay  soil,  or  sandy  loam,  and  com- 
pare the  aggregate  surface  of  the  particles  of  a  cubic  foot  of 
it  with  the  area  of  the  school  grounds. 

6.  What  is  a  soil  auger  and  for  what  is  it  used  ?  What 
is  a  soil  survey,  and  how  and  why  is  it  made?  Consider 
the  possibility  of  joining  with  your  classmates  in  making  a 
soil  survey  and  a  soil  map  of  your  district. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
SOIL  FERTILITY  AND  PLANT  GROWTH 

BOTH  plants  and  animals  depend  on  the  soil  for  their  ex- 
istence. Since  animals  can  not  draw  food  immediately 
from  the  soil,  they  are  dependent  on  plants,  which  have 
the  power  to  live  chiefly  from  the  soil  elements.  Plants  may 
therefore  be  looked  upon  as  minute  factories,  each  at  work 
making  living  tissue  out  of  soil  materials.  All  human  food 
comes  either  from  the  plants  themselves,  or  from  animals 
which  feed  on  plants. 

1.    Plant  Food  and  Soil  Fertility 

The  soil  is  the  home  of  the  plant ;  there  it  must  find  the 
conditions  necessary  to  its  growth  and  development.  The 
plant  must  have  air  and  water  for  its  roots,  and  for  its  food 
all  the  elements  that  enter  into  the  tissues  in  its  growth. 
The  ability  of  the  soil  to  supply  the  elements  necessary  for 
plant  growth  is  called  its  fertility. 

Food  required  by  plants. — Agricultural  plants  re- 
quire, in  all,  ten  different  chemical  elements  for  their 
growth.     These  are: 


1: 


Supplied  by  air  and  water. 


Carbon 

Hydrogen 

Oxygen 

Calcium 
Magnesium 
Iron 
Sulphur 

Nitrogen 

Phosphorus  Supplied  by  soil. 

Potassium  J  Quantity  limited. 

236 


.Supplied  by  soil. 
Quantity  inexhaustible. 


1 


SOIL  FERTILITY  AND  PLANT  GROWTH      237 

The  first  of  these  ten  plant  elements,  carbon,  is  supplied 
in  the  form  of  carbon  dioxid  by  the  atmosphere,  and  hence 
forms  no  part  of  the  soil's  fertility.  Hydrogen  and  Qxygen, 
which  are  the  elements  that  compose  water,  are  taken  up  by 
the  plant  directly  from  the  water  of  the  soil.  The  next 
four  of  the  list,  calcium,  magnesium,  iron  and  sulphur,  are 
found  in  practically  all  soils  in  quantities  sufficient  for  ordi- 
nary plant  growth.  The  fertility  of  the  soil  therefore  de- 
pends chiefly  on  the  supply  of  the  last  three,  nitrogen,  phos- 
phorus and  potassium. 

Rich  or  fertile  soils  are  those  that  contain  an  abundance 
of  these  three  elements.  Every  crop  removes  some  amount 
of  each  of  the  seven  elements  supplied  by  the  soil ;  but  since 
calcium,  magnesium,  iron  and  sulphur  are  practically  inex- 
haustible, they  do  not  have  to  be  replaced  in  order  to  main- 
tain the  soil's  fertility.  Nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potas- 
sium, however,  must  constantly  be  returned  to  the  soil  if 
it  is  not  to  become  exhausted  and  the  crops  reduced.  Like 
the  strength  of  a  chain  is  measured  by  its  weakest  link,  so 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  measured  by  the  plant  element  of 
which  it  has  the  least. 

Danger  of  loss  of  fertility. — One  of  our  chief  agricul- 
tural problems  is  to  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  We 
must  all  live  from  its  products,  no  matter  what  our  occupa- 
tion. Most  of  the  tillable  land  of  the  United  States  is  now 
occupied.  Our  people  must  be  fed  from  this  land ;  there  is 
no  other  source  of  supply. 

This  means  that  we  should  not  only  keep  up  the  fertil- 
ity of  the  soil,  but  actually  increase  it  as  time  goes  on.  It 
is  estimated  that  our  population  is  increasing  five  times  as 
fast  as  our  food  supply.  This  fact  explains  in  part,  at  least, 
the  high  cost  of  living. 

Much  land,  particularly  in  the  East  and  South,  has  been 
rendered    almost    valueless    through    careless    methods    of 


238-  AGRICULTURE 

farming  which  have  robbed  the  soil  of  its  nitrogen,  phos- 
phorus and  potassium.  Farms  located  within  a  hundred 
miles  of  the  great  eastern  markets  have  recently  been 
bought  for  from  ten  dollars  to  twenty  dollars  an  acre,  when 
middle  western  land  is  selling  for  one  hundred  dollars  to 
two  hundred  dollars  an  acre.  Much  of  this  eastern  land 
was  originally  as  good  as  the  western,  and  would  be  worth 
three  hundred  dollars  an  acre  if  it  had  been  properly  farmed 
to  conserve  its  fertility. 

There  are  three  principal  methods  of  maintaining  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  or  increasing  it  when  it  has  run  down. 
These  are :  ( 1 )  manuring,  either  with  barnyard  manure  or 
by  plowing  under  such  plants  as  clover,  alfalfa,  cow-peas^ 
or  some  other  green  crop ;  (2)  using  commercial  fertilisers; 
(3)  rotation  of  crops. 

2.    Barnyard  Manure  as  a  Fertiliser 

One  of  the  best  evidences  of  careful  farming  and  good 
management  is  a  well  kept  and  well  used  manure  heap. 
Manure  should  no  more  be  wasted  than  any  other  farm 
product. 

The  value  of  barnyard  manure. — Barnyard  manure  is 
rich  in  all  three  of  the  elements  in  which  the  soil  is  likely 
to  run  short — nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potassium.  It  has 
been  estimated  by  experts  that  if  animals  are  kept  in  stalls 
or  pens  throughout  the  year,  given  a  reasonable  amount  of 
litter  for  bedding  and  all  the  manure  saved,  the  annual  value 
of  the  manure  from  each  animal  will  be:  horses  or  mules, 
twenty-seven  dollars ;  cattle,  'twenty  dollars ;  hogs,  eight 
dollars ;  sheep,  two  dollars.  Differently  stated,  the  value  of 
the  manure  produced  during  the  seven  winter  months  on  a 
farm  keeping  four  horses,  twenty  cows,  fifty  sheep  and  ten 
hogs  would  be  at  least  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars.  These 


Field  showing  tlie  effect  on  legumes  of  proper  treatment  of  the 
soil.  On  the  left,  manure  was  used ;  on  the  right,  limestone, 
rock-phosphate  and  manure. 


The  wrong  way  to  haJHlle  barnyard  manures. 


17 


240  AGRICULTURE 

figures  are  based  on  the  cost  of  an  equal  amount  of  com- 
mercial fertilizer. 

It  is  true  that  not  all  the  fertility  taken  from  the  soil  by 
farm  crops  can  be  returned  by  using  the  manure  from  the 
feeding  of  crops,  but  the.  greater  part  of  it  can  be.  The 
manurial  value  of  different  farm  products,  based  on  the 
cost  of  commercial  fertilizers,  is  shown  in  the  following 
table:    (Farmers'  Bulletin  193,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

Value   of   fertilizer   in   ton 

Phosphoric 
Product  Nitrogen         acid  Potash        Total 

Meadow  hay $  3.47           $  0.57           $  1.06           $  5.10 

Clover  hay 6.83  .78 

Wheat   bran 8.35  3.82 

Linseed  meal 17.87  2.25 

Cottonseed  meal 23.06  3.96 

Wheat     6.38  1.11 

Oats   6.21  .87 

Corn    5.62  .83 

We  see  from  the  above  table  that  the  farmer  who  sells 
a  ton  of  meadow  hay  loses  from  his  farm,  fertilizer  that 
would  cost  about  five  dollars  if  purchased  in  commercial 
form.  If  he  sells  clover  hay,  he  loses  almost  as  much  value 
in  fertilizer  as  his  hay  brings  him.  If  he  pays  twenty  dol- 
lars a  ton  for  wheat  bran  he  gets  over  thirteen  dollars'  worth 
of  fertilizer,  leaving  the  feeding  cost  about  seven  dollars. 

Of  course  it  is  evident  that  these  values  will  not  be  ob- 
tained from  the  feeding  of  farm  crops  unless  the  manure 
is  carefully  saved  and  properly  used.  Not  only  has  manure 
great  chemical  value  because  of  supplying  the  elements 
needed  in  plant  growth,  but  it  has  bacteriological  value  as 
well.     For  manure  contains  an  enormous  number  of  bac- 


1.46 

9.07 

1.14 

13.31 

.99 

21.11 

1.17 

28.16 

.42 

7.91 

.35 

7.43 

.30 

6.75 

SOIL  FERTILITY  AND  PLANT  GROWTH      241 

teria,  many  of  which  aid  in  plant  growth.  Attention  has 
already  been  called  to  the  fact  that  the  addition  of  manure 
improves  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil,  making  it  more 
porous,  and  increasing  the  supply  of  humus. 

Preventing  loss  from  manure. — Loss  of  fertilizing 
qualities  from  manure  is  due  principally  to  two  causes:  (1) 
fermentation,  or  heating,  which  reduces  the  supply  of  nitro- 
gen; and  (2)  weathering,  or  leaching  from  rains,  in  which 
all  the  valuable  elements  suffer. 

The  fermentation  of  manure  is  caused  by  two  different 
kinds  of  bacteria,  one  of  which  works  near  the  outside  of 
the  heap  where  there  is  air,  and  one  farther  in  where  the 
air  is  excluded.  A  certain  degree  of  fermentation  is  neces- 
sary to  the  best  rotting  of  the  manure,  yet  overheating,  or 
the  "lire-fanging"  so  common  in  horse  and  sheep  manure, 
greatly  reduces  its  value. 

The  rapidity  of  fermentation  can  be  controlled  in  part 
by  packing.  If  the  heap  is  too  loosely  built,  the  air- working 
bacteria  become  active,  the  heat  grows  intense  and  nitrogen 
and  humus-making  material  are  lost.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  heap  is  packed  too  closely,  the  decomposition  is  slow 
and  the  manure  does  not  have  the  best  effect  when  spread 
on  the  soil.  Frequent  sprinkling  with  water  will  aid  in 
checking  too  rapid  fermentation. 

Great  loss  is  suffered  from  leaching  when  manure  is  ex- 
posed to  the  weather.  It  has  been  found  that  six  months' 
leaching  of  horse  manure  reduces  its  value  fully  one-half. 
The  remedy  lies  in  collecting  manure  under  cover,  so  that 
it  is 'not  exposed  to  rains.  It  should  also  be  provided  with 
a  water-proof  floor  for  the  heap,  so  that  the  liquid  parts, 
which  are  fully  as  valuable  as  the  solid,  may  not  drain  away 
into  the  soil.  The  profits  from  open-yard,  badly  leached 
manure  are  so  small  as  hardly  to  pay  for  spreading  it  on 


242  AGRICULTURE 

tKe  field.  It  is  a  careless,  shiftless  method  of  farming  that 
allows  this  great  waste,  which  is  so  easily  prevented. 

The  application  of  manure. — For  heavy  soils,  which 
need  to  be  made  porous  by  the  addition  of  vegetable  matter, 
it  is  well  to  spread  manure  on  the  field  fresh  from  the  stalls 
without  waiting  for  it  to  rot.  It  should  not,  however,  be 
allowed  to  lie  long  before  being  plowed  under,  as  much  of 
its  strength  is  lost  in  this  way.  For  all  lighter  soils,  and 
especially  such  as  have  a  tendency  to  dry  out,  the  manure 
should  be  rotted  before  being  applied. 

The  practise  of  throwing  the  manure  in  heaps  on  the 
field  and  later  spreading  it  is  a  mistake.  For  here  also  the 
leaching  takes  place.  Some  of  the  best  elements  of  the 
manure  are  drained  into  the  ground  immediately  under 
the  heap,  and  some  are  lost  by  passing  off  in  the  air.  The 
most  economical  and  satisfactory  method  of  spreading  man- 
ure is  by  use  of  the  manure  spreader.  This  machine  saves 
labor,  and  distributes  the  manure  more  evenly  than  is  pos- 
sible by  hand. 

The  amount  of  manure  to  be  used  will  depend  on  the 
strength  of  the  manure  and  the  condition  of  the  soil.  Five 
tons  to  the  acre  is  a  light  application,  ten  or  twelve  tons 
average,  and  twenty  tons  a  heavy  application. 

3.     Green  Manuring 

As  already  suggested,  the  returning  of  the  barnyard 
manure  to  the  soil,  no  matter  how  skilfully  done,  is  not 
enough  to  maintain  the  fertility.  Our  soils  are  everywhere 
being  gradually  worn  out.  One  of  the  most  successful 
methods  of  supplementing  barnyard  manure  is  by  green 
manuring. 

Meaning  of  green  manuring. — By  green  manuring  is 
meant  plowing  under  any  green  crop  for  the  purpose  of  im- 


SOIL  FERTILITY  AND  PLANT  GROWTH      243 

proving  the  soil.  Green  manures  improve  the  soil  both  by 
adding  to  its  fertility  and  bettering  its  physical  condition. 
If  the  soil  is  light  and  sandy,  green  manure  prevents  it  from 
drying  out.  On  heavy  clay  soil  green  manure  has  quite  the 
opposite  effect,  because  of  admitting  the  air,  loosening  the 
soil,  and  improving  its  drainage. 


Hogs  in  clover.     After  pasturing,  this  clover  will  be  turned 
under  as  green  manure. 

Green  manure  crops. — For  most  purposes  the  best 
green  manure  crops  are  the  nitrogen  gatherers  already  dis- 
cussed— the  clovers,  alfalfa,  cow-peas,  soy-beans,  the  vetches 
and  other  legumes.  Rye,  buckwheat,  rape  and  turnips  are 
among  other  crops  used  as  green  manures.  This  group, 
however,  lacks  the  advantage  of  gathering  nitrogen. 

4.     Commercial  Fertilisers 

Although  proper  systems  of  manuring  and  rotation  of 
crops  will  insure  fertility  on  naturally  good  soil  for  many 


244  AGRICULTURE 

years,  the  land  will  finally  become  exhausted  under  such 
treatment.  This  is  for  the  simple  reason  that  the  crops  re- 
move from  the  soil  each  year  more  of  the  elements  neces- 
sary to  their  growth  than  are  returned  to  it.  The  deficiency 
must  finally  be  made  up  if  permanent  fertility  is  to  be  main- 
tained. This  is  accomplished  by  supplementing  manuring 
and  rotation  with  what  are  called  the  commercial  fertilisers. 

Increased  use  of  commercial  fertilizers. — Commercial 
fertilizers  have  long  been  used  in  a  small  way,  but  it  is  only 
recently  that  they  are  coming  to  be  employed  on  a  large 
scale.  The  farmers  of  the  United  States  are  now  paying 
out  considerably  more  than  $100,000,000  a  year  for  such 
fertilizers.  There  are  at  present  more  than  five  hundred 
manufacturers  selling  the  various  fertilizing  products. 

Since,  as  we  have  seen,  only  three  of  the  elements  neces- 
sary to  plant  production  are  likely  to  run  short,  commercial 
fertilizers  are  commonly  limited  to  these  three — nitrogen, 
phosphorus  and  potassium. 

Commercial  nitrogen  fertilizers. — Nitrogen  is  the 
most  expensive  of  the  three  essential  fertilizers.  Commer- 
cial nitrogen  fertilizer  is  sold  chiefly  in  three  different 
forms:  (1)  nitrate  of  soda  (Chile  saltpeter)  ;  (2)  sulphate  of 
ammonia,  which  is  a  by-product  of  the  manufacture  of  coke 
and  gas;  and  (3)  dried  blood,  ground  or  steamed  bone,  or 
other  animal  products  from  packing  houses. 

The  nitrogen  fertilizers  cost  from  fifteen  to  fifty  cents 
a  pound.  Instead  of  depending  on  them  the  intelligent 
farmer  will  therefore  use  every  effort  to  maintain  the  supply 
of  nitrogen  in  his  soil  through  the  nitrogen-fixing  legumes, 
occasionally  plowing  under  a  crop  of  clover,  alfalfa,  cow- 
peas,  vetches,  or  soy-beans.  Where  these  can  be  grown 
successfully,  there  will  be  little  need  to  buy  nitrogen ;  it  can 
be  obtained  from  the  seventy  million  pounds  of  free  nitro- 
gen in  the  atmosphere  above  each  acre. 


SOIL  FERTILITY  AND  PLANT  GROWTH      245 

Commercial  phosphorus  fertilizers. — Phosphorus  fer- 
tilizers are  supplied  commercially  in  the  form  (1)  of  the 
bones  of  animals  killed  at  the  slaughter-houses ;  (2)  of  min- 
eral deposits  in  phosphate  rock,  immense  beds  of  which  are 
found  in  Tennessee,  South  Carolina,  Florida,  Wyoming, 
Utah,  Idaho  and  Montana;  and  (3)  of  slag  from  the  fur- 
naces where  certain  ores  containing  phosphorus  are  smelted. 

Bone  phosphate  is  sold  either  as  ground  bone,  which  is 
raw  bone  ground  up ;  or  bone  meal,  which  is  made  by  grind- 
ing after  the  bones  have  been  steamed  under  high  pressure 
to  remove  the  fats  and  oils. 

Mineral  phosphate  is  sold  in  two  forms,  (1)  that  first 
treated  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  (2)  the  natural  rock  finely 
ground.  The  first  form  has  the  advantage  of  being  more 
immediately  available  for  plant  use.  The  second  form  is 
considerably  less  expensive^  and,  when  mixed  with  organic 
matter  like  some  form  of  manure,  proves  equally  as  valu- 
able as  the  more  expensive  compound. 

Commercial  potassium  fertilizers. — Potassium  fertil- 
izers are  available  in  several  commercial  forms,  none  of 
which  is  produced  in  large  quantity  in  this  country.  The 
potash  mines  of  Germany  are  the  chief  source  of  supply. 

The  crude  potash  may  be  used  on  the  soil  directly  as 
mined,  or  it  may  be  made  into  more  concentrated  form. 
It  is  sold  commercially  as  a  fertilizer  ( 1 )  as  muriate  of  pot- 
ash, (2)  as  saltpeter  of  potash,  and  (3)  as  kainit.  Since  this 
product  has  to  be  imported  it  is  naturally  more  expensive 
than  if  produced  at  home.  From  one  hundred  to  two  hun- 
dred pounds  to  the  acre,  applied  at  intervals  of  from  one  to 
three  years,  will,  however,  usually  prove  sufficient  to  keep 
up  the  supply. 

The  application  of  commercial  fertilizers. — Because 
commercial  fertilizers  are  so  expensive,  and  also  for  the 
reason  that  the  application  of  a  fertilizer  when  it  is  not 


246  AGRICULTURE 

needed  may  do  positive  harm,  the  advice  of  your  county 
agricultural  agent  or  some  other  agricultural  expert  should 
be  sought  before  purchasing.    An  expert,  after  a  survey  of 


The  better  way.    Manure  carrier  and  spreader. 

your  soil,  will  be  able  not  only  to  suggest  the  best  kind  for 
local  needs,  but  also  the  amount  that  should  be  used. 

5.    The  Use  of  Lime  on  Soils 

Lime  can  hardly  be  called  a  fertilizer,  since  it  does  not 
contain  any  of  the  elements  in  which  the  soil  is  generally 
lacking.  Yet  because  of  its  action  on  certain  other  elements 
of  the  soil  it  is  necessary  to  plant  production.  When  lime 
does  not  already  exist  in  the  soil  it  must  be  added  in  com- 
mercial form  if  the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  to  be  maintained. 
The  purpose  of  lime  is  to  cure  the  soil  of  its  acid  condition. 

Acid  soils. — All  soils  have  a  tendency  to  become  sour, 
or  acid.  This  acidity  comes  about  in  several  different  ways: 
in  the  decay  of  organic  matter  in  the  soil,  certain  acids  are 


SOIL  FERTILITY  AND  PLANT  GROWTH      247 

produced;  hence  the  soils  rich  in  humus  are  Ukely  to  be 
acid.  Plant  roots  give  off  acid  in  the  process  of  their 
growth,  and  this  acid  remains  in  the  soil.  The  action  of 
the  nitrifying  bacteria  also  adds  to  the  acidity  of  the  soil. 
Heavy,  non-porous  clay  soils  which  do  not  allow  the  en- 
trance of  fresh  air  are  usually  sour. 

The  degree  of  acidity  of  soils  can  be  judged  (1)  by  the 
refusal  of  certain  plants  to  grow  in  them ;  for  example,  the 
legumes  will  not  thrive  in  acid  soils,  and  the  failure  of  clover 
or  alfalfa  to  do  well  should  arouse  a  suspicion  of  too  much 
acid,  (2)  The  presence  of  such  weeds  as  sheep-sorrel, 
horsetail  rush,  corn  spurry,  and  wood  horsetail  indicate 
acid.  (3)  Blue  litmus  paper  turns  red  when  placed  in  con- 
tact with  a  soil  containing  acid. 

Liming  acid  soils. — Lime  is  a  certain  remedy  for  acid 
soils.  In  some  regions,  especially  where  limestone  abounds, 
the  natural  supply  of  lime  in  the  soil  is  sufficient  to  overcome 
the  surplus  acid.  In  other  regions,  lime  needs  to  be  applied 
in  commercial  form.  This  is  the  only  cure  for  acid  soil 
within  reach  of  the  farmer. 

Nearly  all  prairie  soil  is  in  some  degree  acid,  especially 
on  slopes  where  leaching  of  the  soil  has  carried  away  the 
original  deposits  of  lime,  and  wherever  large  supplies  of 
humus  have  formed  from  the  decay  of  organic  matter. 
Thousands  of  acres  of  acid  land  would  well  repay  the  cost 
of  liming  by  increased  yields.  Many  farmers  now  look  on 
liming  as  a  regular  and  necessary  requirement.  Of  course 
lime  should  not  be  applied  unless  needed,  but  the  tests  are 
so  simple  that  this  is  easily  determined. 

Forms  of  lime  used. — Lime  is  available  for  applica- 
tion to  the  soil  in  several  forms:  (1)  Quicklime,  or  lime 
ready  for  use  in  making  plaster,  when  finely  ground  may  be 
applied  at  the  rate  of  about  one  ton  to  the  acre.  (2)  Air- 
slacked  lime,  or  ordinary  lime  that  has  been  exposed  to  the 


248  AGRICULTURE 

iir,  is  an  excellent  form,  and  may  be  applied  at  the  rate 
of  two  or  more  tons  to  the  acre.  (3)  Ground  or  finely 
crushed  limestone  direct  from  the  quarries  is  widely  used 
in  regions  where  it  is  easily  obtainable.  From  one  to  two 
tons  to  the  acre  will  usually  correct  the  acidity. 

The  form  of  lime  to  be  used  will  depend  chiefly  on  which 
is  most  easily  available  and  cheapest.  The  amount  required 
is  determined  by  the  degree  of  acidity  in  the  soil. 

6.     Crop  Rotation  and  Fertility 

The  rotation  of  crops  can  not  properly  be  said  to  In- 
crease the  fertility  of  the  soil.  For  every  crop  removes 
from  the  soil  some  quantity  of  each  of  the  elements  required 
for  plant  growth.  Certain  advantages  come  from  rotation, 
however,  which  at  least  save  the  rapid  soil  exhaustion  re- 
sulting from  growing  one  crop  continuously.  Rotation  also 
brings  increased  yields.  In  this  sense  a  proper  rotation 
may  have  the  same  effect  as  the  application  of  a  fertilizer,, 
though  it  can  never  serve  as  a  substitute. 

What  is  meant  by  rotation  of  crops. — By  rotation  of 
crops  is  meant  a  regular  order  follozved  for  a  period  of  years, 
and  alternating  on  different  fields.  If  this  order  is  hit-and- 
miss,  or  the  result  of  whim  or  chance,  it  can  not  be  called  a 
rotation.  Rotations  may  be  planned  on  a  two-year,  three- 
year,  four-year,  or  any  other  cycle. 

What  is  accomplished  by  rotation. — Rotation  of 
crops  improves  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil.  Grasses 
and  legumes  have  a  larger  supply  of  roots  than  most  cereals, 
and  so  increase  the  organic  matter.  Different  crops  send 
their  roots  to  different  depths,  and  so  use  new  portions  of 
the  soil.  The  cultivation  of  inter-tilled  crops  clears  the  soil 
of  weeds,  and  opens  it  up  to  air  and  moisture. 

Rotation  also  aids  in  destroying  insects  and  other  ene- 


SOIL  FERTILITY  AND  PLANT  GROWTH      249 

mies  of  plants,  as  we  have  already  seen.  The  pests  that 
attack  one  kind  of  crop  die  out  when  another  crop  is  raised 
on  the  field.  The  growing  of  the  nitrogen-gathering  legumes 
on  every  part  of  the  farm  in  succession  is  allowed  by  rota- 
tion, thus  saving  the  necessity  of  buying  commercial  nitro- 
gen fertihzers. 

The  crops  to  use  in  a  rotation. — It  is  evident  that  no 
universal  standard  rotation  can  be  prescribed.  Both  the  par- 
ticular crops  and  the  order  must  be  decided  by  local  con- 
ditions and  requirements.  The  rotation  is  usually  based  on 
some  one  principal  crop,  the  other  crops  being  arranged  to 
favor  this.  For  example,  corn  is  the  basis  of  rotation  in 
the  states  constituting  the  "corn  belt."  A  five-year  rota- 
tion with  corn  occupying  about  forty  per  cent,  of  the  farm 
might  be  something  as  follows : 


Tear 


Field    A        Field  B 


Field  C 


Field    D       Field  B 


First 

Corn 

Corn 

Oats 

Clover 

Pasture 

Second 

Corn 

Oats 

Clover 

Pasture 

Corn 

Third 

Oats 

Clover 

Pasture 

Corn 

Corn 

Fourth 

Clover 

Pasture 

Corn 

Corn 

Oats 

Fifth 

Pasture 

Corn 

Corn 

Oats 

Clover 

First 

Corn 

Corn 

Oats 

Clover 

Pasture 

It  will  be  noted  that  this  arrangement  provides  for  two 
fields  of  corn  each  year,  and  one  field  each  of  oats,  clover, 
and  pasture.  Of  course  other  crops  might  be  inserted  in  the 
rotation.  With  alfalfa  in  the  rotation,  a  longer  cycle  is 
needed,  since  it  does  not  pay  to  plow  alfalfa  up  so  soon  after 
planting. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Has  the  yield  of  the  principal  crops  increased  or 
decreased  in  your  region  within  the  last  ten  or  twenty 
years  ?  To  make  sure  of  this,  ask  your  father,  or  some  one 
who  has  farmed  in  the  vicinity  for  some  time. 

2.  Are  there  run-down  farms  in  the  neighborhood? 
If  so,  is  the  land  naturally  poor,  or  has  it  been  depleted  by 


250  AGRICULTURE 

Single  cropping  or  poor  methods  of  farming?  Learn  the 
history  of  all  such  farms  as  accurately  as  possible,  with  ref- 
erence to  cropping,  rotation,  manuring,  and  so  on. 

3.  Based  on  the  figures  given  in  section  two,  what  was 
the  approximate  value  of  the  manure  produced  on  your 
home  farm  last  year ?    (Seep.  240.) 

4.  What  care  is  given  to  saving  the  manure  on  your 
home  farm?  Is  it  collected  under  cover?  Does  it  ever 
"fire- fang"?  Is  there  a  water-tight  floor  under  the  heap? 
How  closely  is  the  manure  gathered  up  from  the  yards? 
What  is  the  method  of  distributing  it  on  the  fields?  How 
many  loads  are  used  to  the  acre? 

5.  How  much  hay,  oats,  corn  and  other  farm  products 
were  sold  from  your  home  farm  last  year?  What  was  the 
approximate  manurial  value  loss  to  the  farm? 

6.  What  commercial  fertilizers  are  used  in  your  re- 
gion? In  what  form  is  the  fertilizer  applied?  What  is 
the  quantity  used  per  acre?  The  cost?  To  what  extent 
is  green  manuring  employed  ?  What  crops  are  chiefly  used  ? 
What  is  meant  by  a  "5-8-7"  commercial  fertilizer? 

7.  To  make  the  litmus-paper  test  for  acid  in  soils,  take 
a  small  piece  of  blue  litmus  paper  and  place  it  between 
pieces  of  thoroughly  dampened  soil,  pressing  the  soil  close 
and  leaving  it  in  contact  with  the  paper  for  five  minutes. 
If  the  paper  turns  red,  the  soil  is  acid  and  needs  lime. 
Secure  samples  of  soil  taken  at  a  depth  of  six  inches  from 
several  different  parts  of  your  farm,  including  both  upland 
and  lowland  areas,  and  make  the  litmus-paper  test. 

8.  Draw  a  diagram  of  your  home  farm  showing  the 
different  fields.  Now  work  out  several  different  crop  rota- 
tions based  on  your  principal  crop,  and  taking  into  account 
the  necessity  for  growing  some  legume  for  improving  the 
soil.  Compare  with  the  rotations  suggested  by  other  mem- 
bers of  the  class. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
SOIL  MOISTURE 

WATER  is  as  necessary  to  the  growth  of  plants  as  fer- 
tile soil.  All  the  food  taken  by  plants  from  the  soil 
must  first  be  dissolved  in  water.  The  tiny  root-tips  suck 
in  this  food-laden  water  which  circulates  to  every  part  of 
the  plant,  producing  its  growth. 

The  amount  of  water  required  by  a  growing  crop  is  enor- 
mous. For  every  pound  of  dry  matter  made  by  the  plant, 
from  three  hundred  to  eight  hundred  pounds  of  water  must 
be  drawn  in  by  its  roots  and  circulate  through  it.  To  pro- 
duce a  ton  of  dry  hay  on  an  acre  of  ground  demands  that 
approximately  five  hundred  tons  of  water  be  pumped  by 
the  grass  stalks  from  the  soil.  When  the  soil  lacks  water, 
plants  are  cut  off  from  both  necessary  food  and  drink. 

1.     Forms  of  Soil  Water 

Gravitational  water. — Soil  that  is  thoroughly  satur- 
ated contains  a  certain  amount  of  free  water  that  will 
drain  off  if  there  is  some  outlet.  That  is,  the  force  of  grav- 
ity pulls  it  down  through  the  soil;  hence  its  name,  free,  or 
gravitational  water. 

To  watch  how  this  works,  place  some  soil  in  a  funnel 
closed  with  a  stopper.  Pour  water  over  the  soil  until  it  is 
completely  soaked.  Then  remove  the  stopper  and  allow 
what  will  of  the  water  to  drain  off.  All  the  water  that  thus 
escapes  is  free,  or  gravitational  water. 

Plants  can  not  use  gravitational  water  for  their  supply. 

251 


252  AGRICULTURE 

This  is  to  say  that  they  can  not  grow  in  a  soaked  soil.  "Wa- 
ter-logged" soil  excludes  air  from  the  roots,  and  the  plants 
soon  suffer  for  want  of  oxygen.  Standing  water  also  keeps 
the  roots  of  most  plants  too  cold  for  good  growth.  Hence 
the  necessity  of  conditions  that  will  allow  the  soil  to  drain 
readily  after  rains,  so  that  the  free  water  may  escape. 

Capillary  water. — Soils  will  not  drain  entirely  dry. 
After  your  funnel  of  earth  has  lost  all  the  water  that  will 
run  from  it,  it  is  still  wet.  This  wetness  is  caused  by  what 
is  called  capillary  water. 

Capillary  water  exists  in  the  form  of  thin  films  around 
the  soil  particles  and  in  the  spaces  between  them,  as  de- 
scribed in  an  earlier  chapter.  Each  separate  particle  is  sur- 
rounded by  its  own  film,  while  larger  films  bind  the  separate 
particles  together  in  granules.  Since  the  particles  of  a  given 
weight  of  soil  of  fine  texture  present  a  larger  surface  area 
than  the  particles  of  a  soil  of  coarse  texture,  it  is  evident 
that  the  finer  the  soil  the  greater  the  amount  of  capillary 
water  required  to  make  up  the  films. 

Plant  growth  and  capillary  water. — It  is  the  capillary 
water  of  the  soil  that  plants  use  in  their  growth.  Their 
root  tips  come  in  contact  with  the  water  films  surrounding 
the  soil  particles  and  drink  this  water  in.  One  of  the  first 
requisites  of  a  productive  soil,  therefore,  is  its  ability  to  act 
as  a  reservoir  for  a  large  amount  of  capillary  water. 

2.     Capacity  of  Soils  of  Capillary  Water 

Soils  differ  greatly  in  their  capacity  for  capillary  water. 
This  can  easily  be  shown  by  a  simple  experiment.  Bake  a 
pint  of  sand  and  a  pint  of  clay  until  all  the  water  is  dried 
out ;  then  place  the  samples  in  separate  funnels  over  the 
lower  end  of  which  is  tied  a  piece  of  cheese  cloth.  Now 
slowly  pour  water  from  a  graduate  over  each  soil  until  the 


SOIL  MOISTURE  253 

water  begins  to  drip  from  the  bottom  of  the  funnel.    Note 
carefully  how  much  water  was  required  in  each  case. 

Soil  texture  and  capillary  water. — Because  of  the 
fineness  of  their  texture,  clay  and  silt  soils  have  much 
greater  capacity  for  capillary  water  than  sandy  or  gravelly 
soils.  Under  average  field  conditions  the  difference  in  the 
amount  of  capillary  water  held  in  the  first  two  feet  of  fully 
saturated  soil  is  about  as  follows: 

Sandy  loam  soil  will  hold 5       inches  of  water 

Clay  loam  soil  will  hold IVi 

Muck  soil  will  hold MVz      " 

This  is  to  say  that  it  would  require  a  sheet  of  water  five 
inches  deep  to  supply  the  capillary  water  for  the  first  two 
feet  of  saturated  sandy  soil ;  a  sheet  of  water  seven  and  one- 
half  inches  deep  for  the-first  two  feet  of  saturated  clay  soil ; 
and  a  sheet  twelve  and  one-half  inches  deep  for  the  first 
two  feet  of  saturated  muck  soil. 

Drawing  ground  water  by  capillarity. — A  very  simple 
experiment  will  test  the  capacity  of  different  soils  for  draw- 
ing capillary  water  from  below.  Take  four  glass  tubes  at 
least  one  inch  in  diameter  and  from  fifteen  to  twenty  inches 
long,  or  four  chimneys  from  student-lamps,  and  arrange 
them  suspended  in  a  rack.  Tie  over  the  lower  end  of  each  a 
piece  of  cheese-cloth.  Fill  the  tubes  with  soils  of  different 
texture,  from  fine  clay  to  coarse  sand.  Place  a  pan  beneath 
the  tubes,  and  pour  water  into  it  until  the  water  stands  half 
an  inch  above  the  bottom  of  the  tubes.  Now  watch  the  wa- 
ter rise  in  the  different  soils.  Keep  accurate  track  of  the 
time  required,  and  of  the  height  reached  in  each.  What 
are  your  conclusions? 

Humus  and  capillary  water. — The  capacity  of  any 
soil  for  holding  capillary  water  is  greatly  increased  by  the 
presence  of  decaying  organic  matter.     It  has  been  care- 


254  AGRICULTURE 

^Uy  estimated  that  one  ton  of  humus  will  absorb  two  tons 
of  water  and  give  it  up  as  needed  by  growing  plants. 

3.    Tillage  and  Soil  Water 

One  of  the  chief  problems  of  agriculture  is  to  conserve 
the  capillary  water  of  the  soil  and  make  it  available  for 
plant  growth.  Capillary  water  is  removed  from  the  soil 
in  two  ways,  (1)  by  evaporation,  and  (2)  by  being  absorbed 
by  the  roots  of  growing  plants.  What  is  lost  by  evapora- 
tion is  wasted  so  far  as  crops  are  concerned. 

Tillage  for  conserving  capillary  moisture. — All  loos- 
ening of  the  soil  increases  its  absorbing  power,  and  thus 
causes  rain  to  soak  into  the  ground  instead  of  running  off 
the  top.  The  deeper  the  plowing  the  greater  this  effect  will 
be.  Fall  plowing,  by  opening  the  soil  for  the  absorption  of 
the  winter  snows,  adds  to  the  amount  of  soil  water. 

The  most  effective  tillage  for  conserving  capillary  water, 
however,  is  the  frequent  cultivation  during  the  growing  sea- 
son which  results  in  a  fine  soil  mulch  over  the  surface.  To 
see  the  truth  of  this,  make  the  following  experiment : 

Effect  of  a  soil  mulch. — Fill  two  glasses  nearly  full 
of  the  same  soil ;  if  the  soil  is  dry,  add  an  equal  amount  of 
water  to  each,  making  the  soil  fairly  damp,  but  not  soaked ; 
pack  them  equally  by  striking  the  glass  gently  down  on  the 
table.  Now  put  a  half  inch  of  fine,  dry  road  dust  over  the 
top  of  one,  leaving  the  other  without  covering.  Set  the  two 
glasses  side  by  side,  and  note  the  time  it  requires  for  each 
to  dry  out  by  losing  its  capillary  water  through  evapora- 
tion. 

The  fine  mulch  made  by  frequent  harrowings  and  culti- 
vatings  has  precisely  the  same  effect  on  our  fields.  In  dry 
regions  summer  fallowing  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  col- 
lecting a  supply  of  capillary  water.    Whatever  rain  falls  is 


The  right  kind  of  mulch  for 
moisture  conservation  is 
granular — that  is,  the  dirt 
should  not  be  pulverized  too 
finely. 


The  wrong  kind  of  mulch.  The 
ground  is  almost  dust.  Such 
mulch  blows  away  easily. 


The  granular  mulch  rained  up- 
on and  left  standing  for  a 
number  of  days.  Observe 
that  the  ground  is  cracking 
and  that  moisture  is  escaping 
through  these  cracks.  The 
crust  can  be  easily  broken. 


Dust  mulch  rained  upon  arid 
left  standing  in  the  hot  sun. 
Note  that  the  cruFt  has 
cracked,  and  that  the  moist- 
ure is  escaping  very  rapidly. 
It  is  impossible  to  work  up 
this  seed  bed  properly. 


18 


256     ■  AGRICULTURE 

saved  by  keeping  the  surface  covered  with  a  fine  soil  mulch, 
and  what  moisture  is  drawn  up  toward  the  surface  from  the 
ground  water  by  capillary  attraction  is  also  conserved  for 
the  crop  that  is  to  follow. 

4,    Soil  Drainage 

Necessary  as  water  is  to  plants,  however,  much  of  our 
soil  needs  drainage  to  rid  it  of  an  oversupply  of  free  or 
gravitational  water.  There  are  some  eighty  million  acres  of 
marsh  lands  in  the  United  States.  The  greater  part  of  this 
waste  territory  would  make  excellent  farm  land  if  properly 
drained. 

But  perhaps  fully  as  important  is  the  occasional  small 
piece  of  wet  ground  on  farms  now  under  tillage.  In  cer- 
tain regions  there  is  hardly  a  farm  that  does  not  have  its 
low  marshy  places  where  crops  drown  out  in  wet  times,  or 
which  are  allowed  to  lie  without  cultivation.  In  nearly  all 
cases  this  land  could  be  made  the  equal  of  the  remainder 
of  the  farm  by  drainage  and  a  little  care. 

Surface  drainage. — Surface  drainage  is  never  so 
thorough  and  satisfactory  as  underdrainage,  yet  it  will  often 
improve  conditions  enough  to  pay.  By  surface  drainage 
is  meant  the  opening  of  runs  or  ditches  to  allow  the  escape 
of  surface  water  that  otherwise  would  stand  on  the  soil, 
flood  over  lower  ground,  or  percolate  down  to  add  to  the 
gravitational  water  already  in  the  subsoil. 

Low  ground  is  sometimes  plowed  in  narrow  strips,  the 
frequent  dead  furrows  allowing  surface  drainage.  If  there 
is  a  slight  slope  and  the  furrows  can  open  freely  at  the  end, 
this  will  prove  of  great  benefit.  Where  such  simple  drain- 
age will  not  serve,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  construct 
open  ditches,  though  these  should  give  way  to  underdrain- 
age when  this  is  oossible.    For  underdrainage  is  under  most 


Undisked  stubble  plowed.  Ob- 
serve that  the  ground  is 
turned  up  in  lumps;  that 
there  are  open  spaces  at  the 
bottom  of  the  furrow  which 
prevent  the  close  compact- 
ness of  the  lower  portion  of 
the  turned  furrow  with  the 
soil  beneath. 


Disked  stubble  plowed.  The 
mulch  formed  by  the  disk 
harrow  fills  up  the  open 
spaces  at  the  bottom  of  the 
furrow,  thereby  forming  a 
close  conection  with  the  sub- 
surface. 


This  illustration  represents  the      This  illustration  represents  the 


field  above  treated  with  a 
pegtooth  harrow  after  plow- 
ing. The  surface  is  in  com- 
paratively good  condition, 
but  the  bottom  is  not  compact. 


field  above  harrowed  with 
pegtooth  harrow.  The  air 
spaces  are  still  at  the  bottom 
of  the  furrow. 


258  AGRICULTURE 

cfcnditions  a  more  successful  way  of  removing  the  water, 
and  it  saves  much  loss  of  ground  and  the  cutting  up  of 
fields. 

Making  surface  drains. — Surface  runs  which  are  only 
required  to  remove  surplus  water  during  flood  seasons  may 
be  made  one  and  one-half  feet  deep  and  ten  feet  wide  at  the 
top  at  a  cost  of  about  twenty-five  cents  a  rod,  using  a  road 
grader  for  the  excavating.  Such  shallow  runs  are  often 
seeded,  and  the  edges  leveled  off  and  cultivated,  thus  avoid- 
ing waste  of  land.  Open  ditches  of  this  kind  are  often  de- 
sirable in  connection  with  underdrainage.  They  also  serve 
as  an  eaves-trough  to  prevent  flood  water  of  surrounding 
uplands  from  entering  lower  areas. 

Deeper  ditches  are  required  when  the  main  drain  is  to 
receive  the  discharge  of  lateral  drains.  The  size  and  depth 
will  depend  on  the  territory  to  be  drained,  and  the  fall  of 
the  ditch.  In  the  Middle  West,  open  ditches,  many  of  them 
miles  in  length,  are  being  constructed,  each  farm  served 
paying  its  share  of  the  expense.  Open  lateral  ditches  or 
underground  tile  then  empty  into  this  main  drain.  Under 
average  conditions,  the  cost  of  opening  a  ditch  seven  feet 
deep  and  twenty  feet  wide  at  the  top  by  means  of  a  dredging 
machine  is  about  one  thousand  dollars  a  mile. 

Underdrainage. — Underdrainage  has  the  advantage 
of  carrying  off  the  ground  water  to  any  desired  depth. 
This  is  an  important  matter  in  the  growth  of  most  crops. 
For  where  the  level  of  ground  water  is  near  the  surface, 
plants  will  not  strike  their  roots  deep  in  the  soil,  but  spread 
them  out  near  the  top.  This  leaves  the  crop  at  the  mercy 
of  drought  later  in  the  season,  when  the  upper  layers  of 
soil  dry  out.  Deep  rooting  is  also  necessary  to  make  full 
use  of  the  plant  food  of  the  soil. 

Tile  underdrains. — Burnt  clay  and  cement  are  the 
materials  chiefly  used    for  underdrains  in  most    regions. 


SOIL  MOISTURE  259 

These  materials  are  made  into  cylinders  from  three  to  thir- 
ty-six inches  in  diameter,  and  from  twelve  to  thirty  inches 
in  length.  For  lateral  drains,  tiles  four  or  five  inches  in 
diameter  are  most  used.  The  main  outlet  drain  usually 
requires  tiles  from  eight  to  twelve  inches. 

Placing  the  drains. — Moderately  heavy  clay  soils  re- 
quire laterals  about  four  rods  apart  to  carry  off  the  rainfall. 
If  the  subsoil  is  sandy,  the  laterals  may  be  as  much  as  eight 
rods  apart.  Sometimes  the  marshiness  of  a  piece  of  ground 
is  caused  by  seepage  leading  to  it  from  some  higher  area. 
In  this  case,  there  should  be  a  line  of  tile  at  the  edge  of  'the 
lower  ground  to  receive  the  seepage. 

Several  lines  of  parallel  drains  are  more  economical  than 
one  central  line  into  which  diagonal  laterals  run.  This  is 
because  with  parallel  drains  there  is  less  area  receiving 
double  drainage.  Several  parallel  lines  can  often  be  car- 
ried into  one  line  of  larger  tile,  and  all  discharge  through 
the  same  outlet,  thus  saving  trouble  and  expense. 

Depth  of  tile. — Tile  should  be  placed  deep  enough  ' 
that  the  level  of  ground  water  will  not  stand  too  near 
the  surface,  and  yet  not  too  deep  to  carry  off  the  gravita- 
tional water  without  allowing  it  to  stay  too  long  in  the 
soil.  In  clay  subsoil  the  most  common  depth  is  about  three 
feet.  In  partially  sandy  subsoils,  the  depth  may  be  four  feet. 
All  tile  meant  to  catch  seepage  should  be  as  deep  as  four  feet. 

Gradient,  or  fall. — The  larger  tiles  may  be  laid  with 
a  fall  of  an  inch  to  one  hundred  feet.  Laterals  should  have 
from  two  to  three  times  this  much  fall.  Lines  for  catching 
seepage  should  have  still  greater '  slope ;  as  much  as  five 
inches  to  one  hundred  feet,  if  this  is  possible. 

Cost  of  tiling. — ^The  cost  of  tiling  will,  of  course,  vary 
with  the  size  of  tile  used,  the  depth  it  is  laid,  and  the 
character  of  the  soil.  The  average  cost  under  middle  west- 
ern conditions  is  about  as  shown  in  the  following  table : 


260  AGRICULTURE 


3  feet 

4  feet 

5  feet 

6  feet 

$  .30 

$  .50 

$  .80 

$1.25 

.35 

.55 

.85 

1.30 

.40 

.60 

.90 

1.38 

.45 

.65 

.95 

1.40 

.50 

.70 

1.00 

1.45 

.55 

.75 

1.05 

1.50 

Depth  tile  is  laid 
Size  of  tile 

4  inch  $  .30 

5  inch  

6  inch  

8  inch  

10  inch  

12  inch  


Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Is  there  any  ground  on  your  home  farm  too  wet 
or  marshy  for  cropping  successfully?  If  so,  measure  care- 
fully the  amount  of  land  in  such  areas.  Do  any  patches 
break  the  regularity  of  cultivated  fields?  How  much  land 
is  practically  wasted  as  far  as  any  return  in  crops  is  con- 
cerned ? 

2.  What  is  the  value  of  your  farm  per  acre  ?  What  is 
its  rental  value  per  acre  ?  What  is  the  value  of  all  the  land 
lost  by  being  too  wet  to  cultivate?  What  is  its  rental 
value?  Have  you  any  land  under  cultivation  that  is  too 
wet  at  times  to  produce  good  crops?  What  do  you  esti- 
mate is  the  loss? 

3.  Draw  a  diagram  of  any  pieces  of  marsh  land  on  your 
home  farm,  showing  the  outlet  for  drainage  and  the  distance 
the  drain  would  have  to  run  in  each  case.  Are  there  any 
places  where  a  shallow  run  would  serve?  Have  you  any 
low  ground  troubled  with  rain  floods  from  higher  land? 
If  so,  could  a  shallow  ditch  be  made  to  serve  as  an  eaves- 
trough  to  save  the  flooding? 

4.  Taking  the  cost  of  tile  drainage  as  shown  in  the 
table,  figure  what  it  would  cost  to  tile  out  wet  places  on 
your  farm,  using  four-inch  tile  for  parallels  laid  four  rods 
apart.  The  parallels  are  to  connect  across  the  lower  end 
with  a  six-inch  line,  and  this  is  to  empty  into  the  nearest 
available  ditch  or  stream.  Would  it  pay  to  put  in  tile  on 
your  home  farm? 

5.  By  digging  down  in  several  diflferent  places  on  your 


SOIL  MOISTURE  261 

farm,  see  whether  you  can  discover  the  level  of  ground 
water.  Have  you  ever  seen  water  gather  in  the  bottom  of 
a  post  hole?    What  does  this  indicate? 

6.  Study  the  texture  of  the  soil  in  your  school  yard, 
and  compute  the  approximate  weight  of  the  capillary  water 
contained  in  the  first  two  feet  of  its  depth  when  the  soil  is 
well  saturated. 

7.  Show  how  you  can  make  a  soil  survey  of  your 
father's  farm  by  the  use  of  the  soil,  auger  and  a  diagram 
of  the  farm,  indicating  the  top  soil,  subsoil,  elevations,  low- 
lands, and  drainage  possibilities. 

8.  Upon  an  outline  sketch  of  the  United  States  indi- 
cate the  various  regions  of  distinct  types  of  soil,  such  as 
the  black  loam,  sandy  loam,  clay  loam,  mountain  silt,  lime- 
stone, and  other  types  of  soil  representative  of  a  region. 

5.     Soil  Demonstrations 

In  connection  with  the  study  of  the  soil  there  is  abun- 
dant opportunity  to  make  some  very  interesting  demonstra- 
tions which  will  also  have  direct  application  to  the  manage- 
ment of  the  soil  on  the  farm  or  in  the  garden. 

1.  Show  how  to  determine  the  kind  and  depth  of  soil 
of  any  particular  spot. 

2.  Show  how  to  test  the  soil  for  acidity.  Show  two 
methods  if  possible. 

3.  By  the  use  of  a  tumbler  of  muddy  water  and  the 
application  of  a  little  lime,  show  the  value  of  lime  to  soils. 

4.  Demonstrate  the  value  of  shallow  cultivation  for  the 
conservation  of  moisture  in  soils  by  the  use  of  loaf-sugar 
and  powdered  sugar,  a  solid  or  well  packed  piece  of  earth 
and  a  dust  mulch  placed  on  top.  Apply  water  to  each  at 
the  bottom. 

5.  Demonstrate  how  to  test  the  capillarity  of  soils. 

6.  Demonstrate  by  the  use  of  various  types  of  soil  and 
the  same  kind  of  seed  the  relations  of  types  of  soil  to  the 
germination  of  seed  and  its  subsequent  plant  growth. 


262  AGRICULTURE 

7.  Show  by  demonstration  how  legumes  tend  to  con- 
serve the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

8.  Show  by  the  use  of  different  types  of  soil  their  re- 
spective merits  in  the  conservation  of  moisture. 

6.     Soil  Play  Contest 

1.  Soil  type  naming  contest. 

2.  Soil  analysis  contest. 

3.  Soil  guessing  games. 

4.  Soil  sample  getting  contest. 

5.  Stone  naming  contest,  in  which  samples  of  various 
types  of  native  stones  are  placed  before  the  contestants  and 
the  one  who  can  name  the  largest  number  in  a  given  time 
is  to  be  judged  the  winner. 

7.     Soil  Fertility  Club  Projects 

The  object  of  this  club  project  is  to  organize  the  boys 
and  girls  into  a  cooperative  group  for  the  purpose  of  build- 
ing up  the  soil  fertility  of  a  community.  The  pupils  should 
pledge  themselves  to  manage  at  least  one  acre  of  land  dur- 
ing the  season  with  the  idea  of  not  only  making  a  net  profit 
on  the  investment  for  the  season,  but  of  starting  and  carry- 
ing on  a  three  to  five-year  rotation  of  crops  with  a  dis- 
tinct plan  of  growing  leguminous  crops  such  as  clover, 
alfalfa,  cow-peas,  etc.  This  kind  of  a  club  project  can  be 
easily  combined  with  the  other  club  work  outlined  in  con- 
nection with  corn,  small  grains  and  forage  crops. 

Combined  club  projects. — ^The  project  may  also  con- 
template the  raising  of  some  live  stock  such  as  a  thorough- 
bred pig,  a  baby  beef,  a  pen  of  chickens,  or  any  other  live 
stock  which  rightfully  belongs  to  the  economy  of  the  farm. 
Club  members  in  this  project  should  keep  a  definite  record 
with  a  view  to  showing  the  bookkeeping  account  and  records 


SOIL  MOISTURE  263 

including  observations,  receipts  and  expenditures,  not  only 
for  the  first  year,  but  for  the  entire  period  of  three  or  four 
years  covering  a  rotation  scheme  for  the  upbuilding  of  the 
soil. 

Club  membership. — This  particular  club  work  should 
be  maintained  for  the  members  of  the  agricultural  class 
and  should  not  be  open  to  the  boys  and  girls  who  are,  as  a 
rule,  too  young  to  appreciate  and  undertake  properly  this 
line  of  work.  The  teacher,  in  cooperation  with  the  county 
superintendent  and  county  agricultural  agent,  may  assist  in 
making  up  a  definite  three  or  four-year  rotation  plan  which 
can  be  uniformly  followed  by  all  members  of  the  club. 

The  basis  of  award  for  a  soil  fertility  club  may  be  as 
follows : 

1.  The  plan  and   management   of  rotation 20 

2.  The   average    yield    per   acre 20 

3.  The   net   profit    on    investment 20 

4.  The  fertile  condition  of  the  soil  at  the  end  of  a  three  or 

four-year    period 20 

5.  Soil  and  crop  records,  story  and  soil  chart  of  w^ork 20 

Total     score 100 


PART  IV.    FARM  ANIMALS 


CHAPTER   XVIII 
FARM   ANIMALS   AND   AGRICULTURE 

FARM  animals  farm  one  of  the  most  important  sources  of 
wealth  in  the  nation.  The  five  most  important  groups 
of  animals,  ranked  according  to  their  market  value,  are 
horses,  cattle,  hogs,  mules  and  sheep.  If  these  animals 
should  all  be  sold,  they  would  bring  the  enormous  sum  of 
nearly  six  billion  dollars,  or  sixty  dollars  for  every  man, 
woman  and  child  in  the  United  States. 

L    Work  Animals 

Farm  animals  serve  several  important  uses:  (1)  they 
provide  food  for  man,  (2)  they  work  for  him,  and  (3)  they 
supply  various  useful  products.  The  total  market  value  of 
the  working  animals,  horses  and  mules,  is  slightly  greater 
than  that  of  the  food  producing  group,  cattle,  sheep  and 
hogs. 

Using  animals  for  work. — Centuries  ago  man  had  not 
yet  domesticated  the  animals  and  trained  them  to  work  for 
him.  Since  the  uses  of  steam  and  electricity  had  not  been 
discovered,  all  labor  had  to  be  done  by  men  themselves. 
The  implements  used  for  cultivating  the  soil  were  all  crude 
and  ineffective,  and  could  only  be  operated  by  hand.     It 

265 


266  AGRICULTURE 

F  then  required  much  more  time  and  effort  to  secure  a  living  by 
agriculture  than  it  does  now. 

One  of  the  greatest  lines  of  progress  in  America  has 
been  the  substitution  of  animal  power  for  man  power  in 
doing  farm  work.  In  this  we  are  far  ahead  of  most  other 
nations,  even  those  of  Europe.  For  example,  we  have  in 
the  United  States  almost  twenty-five  million  horses,  or  ap- 
proximately one  to  every  four  persons.  In  France,  one 
horse  has  to  serve  ten  people ;  in  Germany,  thirteen,  and  in 
Great  Britain,  twenty-six. 

Saving  in  time  by  work  of  animals. — The  use  of  work 
animals  has  resulted  in  great  saving  of  time.  It  has  been 
estimated  that  in  1830  each  bushel  of  wheat  grown  in  the 
United  States  required  three  hours  of  a  man's  time ;  it  now 
requires  less  than  ten  minutes.  In  1850  it  took  a  man  four 
and  one-half  hours  on  an  average  to  grow,  harvest  and 
shell  a  bushel  of  corn ;  it  now  requires  less  than  forty  min- 
utes. The  greater  part  of  this  saving  has  come  through  the 
use  of  improved  farm  machinery  drawn  by  horses  or  mules. 

Where  the  peasants  of  European  countries  use  shovels, 
hoes,  scythes  or  other  primitive  implements,  we  employ 
gang-plows,  disk  harrows  and  self-binders.  The  great  sav- 
ing in  human  energy  and  time  growing  out  of  this  dif- 
ference is  seen  when  it  is  remembered  that  one  horse  hitched 
to  modern  machinery  can  do  the  work  of  at  least  ten  men 
with  hand  tools.  Many  an  American  boy  with  his  four- 
horse  team  is  therefore  accomplishing  the  labor  of  forty 
European  peasants  with  their  hand  work  and  poor  tools ! 

The  animals  used  for  work. — Among  the  various  ani- 
mals that  men  have  trained  to  work  for  them  are  horses, 
cattle,  mules,  buffalo,  reindeer,  camels,  dogs  and  elephants. 
No  animals,  except  horses,  mules  and  cattle,  have  ever  been 
extensively  used  for  farm  wonk  in  this  country.  The  use  of 
oxen  for  work  has  now  been  almost  wholly  discontinued. 


FARM  ANIMALS  AND  AGRICULTURE        267 

During  recent  years,  horses  and  mules  have  found  a  com- 
petitor in  the  automobile  and  the  traction-engine.  Thousands 
of  farmers  now  own  their  cars,  and  the  gasoline  tractor  is 
a  common  sight  on  many  of  the  larger  western  farms.  In 
spite  of  these  facts,  however,  the  number  of  horses  and 
mules  on  our  farms  is  constantly  increasing,  and  the  mar- 
ket for  them  is  growing  better  and  more  uniform.  The 
price  of  work  animals  is  considerably  higher  than  it  was 
when  automobiles  and  traction-engines  began  to  come  into 
use.  Horses  will  always  have  an  important  place  in  the 
economy  of  the  farm. 

2.    Animals  That  Supply  Food 

Meat  and  other  animal  products  form  a  very  important 
part  of  our  food  supply.  Even  vegetarians,  who  are  op- 
posed to  the  eating  of  flesh,  depend  largely  on  such  foods 
as  butter,  eggs  and  milk. 

Meat  as  food. — A  great  proportion  of  all  our  farm 
crops  goes  to  the  feeding  of  meat  producing  animals.  The 
most  progressive  nations  of  the  world  are  those  that  in  ad- 
dition to  fruit  and  vegetables  for  the  diet  make  much 
use  of  their  domestic  animals  in  supplying  food  prod- 
ucts. Meat  is  a  more  expensive  food  than  grains  and  vege- 
tables, and  people  of  the  poorer  classes  can  not  afford  to 
eat  it.  Millions  of  those  living  in  oriental  countries  seldom 
taste  meat  in  any  form.  Lack  of  nutrition  and  a  balanced 
ration  are  shown  in  absence  of  ambition  and  enterprise. 

According  to  careful  estimates  the  food  supply  in 
American  homes  is  divided  among  the  different  foods  in 
approximately  the  following  proportions  (Farmers'  Bulletin 
391): 

Meats   and   poultry 16% 

Dairy     products 18% 


268  AGRICULTURE 

I'Cereals  and   their  products 31% 

Vegetables   and   fruits 25% 

All   other   foods 10% 

It  is  therefore  seen  that  we  derive  more  than  one-third 
of  all  our  food  in  this  country  from  animals,  either  by  con- 
suming their  flesh  or  other  products  from  them,  such  as 
milk,  butter,  cheese,  etc. 

Animals  used  for  meat. — The  animals  whose  flesh  is 
chiefly  used  for  food  are  cattle,  hogs  and  sheep.  So  great 
has  the  industry  of  preparing  their  flesh  for  food  become, 
that  every  city  has  its  great  stock-yards  and  slaughter- 
houses, where  hundreds  of  thousands  of  animals  are  killed 
every  year.  Cold  storage  vaults  are  provided  in  which 
meats  can  be  kept  at  a  temperature  below  freezing  for 
months  at  a  time.  Much  of  the  meat  that  is  now  used  on 
the  farms  is  first  shipped  to  the  city  packing  houses  for 
slaughter,  and  then  bought  back  from  retail  dealers  as 
needed,  in  the  form  of  bacon,  ham,  canned  or  dried  beef, 
or  as  fresh  meats  shipped  in  refrigerator  cars.  Many  small 
towns  also  have  their  local  slaughter-houses,  where  animals 
purchased  from  the  farms  are  killed  for  home  consumption. 

Other  food  products  from  animals. — The  other  food 
products  from  animal  life,  such  as  milk,  butter,  eggs  and 
cheese,  are  even  more  important.  Milk  and  eggs  contain 
more  of  the  different  food  elements  needed  by  the  human 
body  than  any  other  foods;  and  butter  is  as  necessary  as 
meat. 

The  dairy  and  poultry  industries  are  therefore  among 
the  most  important  connected  with  agriculture.  Milk  and 
butter  are  shipped  to  the  cities  in  refrigerator  cars  or  special 
trains.  Hundreds  of  creameries  are  operated  to  save  time 
for  the  farmer  and  insure  him  greater  profit.  Many  train- 
loads  of  eggs  and  butter  are  collected  during  the  summer 


FARM  ANIMALS  AND  AGRICULTURE 


269 


months  and  put  in  cold  storage  and  kept   for  the  winter 
supply. 

3.     Other  Animal  Products 

The  farm  animals  are  useful  in  other  ways  than  doing 
work  and  providing  food  for  man.  Many  practical  neces- 
sities are  supplied  by  them. 


A  promising  family. 

Leather. — The  skins  of  all  the  common  farm  animals 
are  saved  for  leather.  Cattle,  horses,  sheep  and  even  pigs, 
contribute  to  the  making  of  our  shoes,  gloves,  mittens,  har- 
nesses, saddles,  cushions  and  many  other  articles  in  com- 
mon use. 

Wool. — Sheep  furnish  one  of  the  most  valuable  cloth- 
ing materials  known.     Many  sheep  ranches  are  maintained 


270  ■  AGRICULTURE 

•^"chiefly  for  the  fleeces,  mutton  being  of  secondary  consid- 
eration. More  than  thirty-eight  milHon  sheep  annually  give 
up  their  wool  in  the  United  States  for  the  making  of  cloth- 
ing and  other  articles  for  the  household. 

Other  products. — We  owe  many  other  articles  of 
common  use  to  some  form  of  animal  product.  Our  brushes 
are  made  from  bristles.  Buttons  are  cut  from  bone.  Gelatin 
and  glue  are  both  animal  products.  Many  soaps  are  made 
from  animal  parts  not  suitable  for  meat.  Blood  and  bone, 
as  we  have  already  seen,  are  used  for  fertilizers.  So  com- 
pletely are  all  parts  of  slaughtered  animals  saved  for  some 
useful  purpose  that  it  is  said  nothing  is  lost  of  the  pig  when 
it  is  killed,  except  the  "squeal." 

It  is  estimated  that  the  value  for  fertilizing  purposes  of 
the  manure  of  all  farm  animals  in  the  United  States,  if 
properly  saved  and  applied  to  the  soil,  would  annually  reach 
the  stupendous  amount  of  more  than  two  billion  dollars. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Make  a  careful  list  of  all  animals  belonging  on  your 
home  farm.  Have  your  father  help  estimate  what  each  one 
is  worth,  and  compute  the  value  of  all  live  stock,  and  find 
the  annual  interest  on  this  amount  at  six  per  cent. 

2.  How  many  bushels  of  corn  were  raised  on  your 
farm  last  year  ?  On  the  basis  of  the  time  required  for  pro- 
ducing a  bushel  of  corn  in  1850,  how  many  days  of  nine 
hours  each  would  have  been  required  to  produce  this  crop 
with  machinery  then  in  use?  Make  the  same  computation 
with  the  wheat  raised  on  your  farm,  comparing  with  the  time 
required  to  produce  a  bushel  in  1830. 

3.  Talk  with  your  mother,  and  see  whether  you  can  es- 
timate what  proportion  of  the  food  used  on  your  table 
comes  from  each  of  the  cksses  shown  in  section  two. 

4.  Make  an  investigation  by  reading  and  inquiring 
among  people  of  the  amount  of  meat,  butter,  eggs  and 
milk  used    by  the  farming  class    in    England,   Germany, 


FARM  ANIMALS  AND  AGRICULTURE       .  271 

France,    Spain,    Russia,    China.      Compare   with   our    own 
country. 

5.  Is  there  any  country  where  the  buffalo  is  now  used 
as  a  work  animal  ?  The  elephant  ?  The  camel  ?  Where  are 
reindeer  used,  and  for  what  purpose?  What  are  the  differ- 
ent lines  of  work  in  which  dogs  are  employed? 

6.  Show  on  the  map  of  the  United  States  the  most 
important  regions  for  the  production  of  the  various  types 
of  domestic  animals,  such  as  the  horse,  dairy  and  beef  cat- 
tle, the  sheep,  the  hog  and  the  goat.  Consult  the  last 
census  report  with  reference  to  increase  or  decrease  of  farm 
animals  in  the  various  states. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
CATTLE 

CATTLE  rank  second  only  to  horses  in  market  value  in 
the  United  States.  Our  farms  support  some  twenty- 
two  million  dairy  cows,  or  one  to  approximately  every  four 
people.  In  addition,  there  are  about  thirty-seven  million 
other  cattle,  chiefly  calves  and  beef  stock.  The  value  of 
each  of  these  two  great  groups  is  about  the  same,  nearly  a 
billion  dollars,  or  almost  two  billion  dollars  for  the  whole. 

1.    Dairy  Cattle 

Dairying  is  one  of  the  leading  American  industries. 
Each  of  six  states,  Wisconsin,  New  York,  Iowa,  Minnesota, 
Illinois  and  Texas,  has  more  than  a  million  dairy  cows,  and 
four  other  states,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Michigan  and  Mis- 
souri, have  more  than  three-quarters  of  a  million  each. 
These  ten  states  supply  fifty-three  per  cent,  of  all  our  dairy 
cattle. 

The  following  chart  shows  the  percentage  of  all  the  farm 
dairy  cows  of  the  United  States  found  in  each  of  these 
ten  leading  dairy  states: 

Wisconsin  '■ 7.3% 

New   York  7.1% 

Iowa  6.5% 

Minnesota  5.5% 

Illinois  5.0% 

Texas  5.0% 

Pennsylvania  4.6% 

Ohio  • 4.2% 

Michigan  3.9% 

Missouri  3.8% 

272 


CATTLE 


273 


Profitable  and  unprofitable  cows. — Whether  a  dairy- 
herd  yields  a  profit  or  a  loss  depends  first  of  all  on  the  milk. 
and  butter- fat  producing.capacities  of  the  individual  cows.  A 
poor  cow  may  require  as  much  feed  as  a  good  one,  and  de- 
mands as  much  labor  and  attention. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  one-third  of  the  dairy  cows 
in  the  United  States  are  kept  at  an  actual  loss.     Twice 


A  champion  Hereford. 

every  day,  therefore,  there  are  milked  some  seven  million 
cows,  mere  "boarders,"  that  not  only  return  no  profit,  but 
use  up  the  profit  from  good  cows.  How  many  cows  of  this 
kind  are  kept  on  your  farm? 

Profit  differences  in  herds. — It  is  estimated  that  the 
skim-milk,  calf  and  manure  from  a  dairy  cow  are  worth 
the  cost  of  caring  for  her.  This  leaves  the  milk  to  bal- 
ance   against    the    value    of   the    feed.      The    difference 


274  AGRICULTURE 

between  the  best  and  the  poorest  cow  in  almost  any  herd 
is  surprising.  This  difference  is  well  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing record  of  fifteen  cows  for  one  year  in  an  Illinois 
herd : 


No. 

Lb. 

Lb.           Per  cent. 

cow 

milk 

fat                 fat 

Profit 

Loss 

1 

1204 

49              4.07 

$27.52 

2 

1236 

50              4.05 



27.20 

3      ^ 

2944 

88              2.99 



15.17 

4 

2597 

91              3.50 



15.38 

5 

2548 

98             3.85 



13.18 

6 

2475 

99             400 

13.18 

7 

2569 

105             4.09 



10.98 

'    8 

3164 

117             3.70 



8.37 

9 

2829 

123             4.34 



8.67 

■  10 

3380 

149             4.41 



1.58 

11 

4582 

158             3.45 

$141 

12 

4146 

174             420 

3.41 



13 

4103 

177             4.31 

541 



14 

4993 

191              3.82 

8.40 



IS 

4435 

200             4.51 

10.21 
$28.84 

Loss 

$141.23 
28.84 

$112.39 

Av. 

3147 

124             3.94 

$    7.49 

Diflferi 

snce  in  profit 

between  best  and 

poorest 

cow.  ^7.73 

This  was  an  exceptionally  poor  herd,  so  poor  that  it 
lost  the  owner  $112.39  for  the  year— an  average  loss  of 
$7.49  per  cow.  Either  of  the  two  poorest  cows  lost  almost 
as  much  as  the  best  five  made  their  owner.  Even  the  best 
cow  of  this  herd  is  poor  enough,  but  there  is  a  diflference 


CATTLE  275 

of  $37.73   in  the  year's  record  between   the  best  and  the 
poorest. 

2.    Selecting  Dairy  Cows  According  to  Type 

Dairy  cows  may  be  selected  by  two  different  methods: 
(1)  keeping  a  record  of  the  amount  of  milk  produced,  with 
the  percentage  of  butter-fat  it  contains;  and  (2)  judging 
whether  the  cow  conforms  to  the  physical  type  known  as 
good  dairy  stock.  The  first  of  these  is  the  only  absolutely 
sure  method.  The  second  is  also  of  great  value,  for  cows 
are  often  bought  without  any  possibility  of  learning  their 
milk  record.  Every  farmer  should,  therefore,  know  the 
points  of  a  gooiLdairy  cow. 

The  dairj/type  of  cow. — Dairy  cattle  and  beef  cattle 
present  two  rkther  distinct  types  as  to  form,  or  build,  and 
appearance.  In  general,  the,  frame  of  the  beef  animal  is 
the  shape  capable  of  taking  onthclargest  amount  of  flesh, 
while  that  of  the  dairy  cow  is  adapted  to  the  production 
of  milk.  Both  types  must  bet  good  eaters,  for  only  the 
food  above  the  amount  requirea^for  maintaining  the  body 
can  go  to  the  production  of  either  beef  or  milk. 

The  good  dairy  cow  is  spare  of  flesh,  for  the  surplus  ^^ 
food  must  be  turned  into  milk  instead  of  fat.  She  appears 
somewhat  loose-jointed,  but  the  muscles  are  well  developed. 
The  coat  is  smooth  and  soft,  the  eyes  are  bright,  and  the  dis- 
position is  wide-awake  and  active.  The  jaw  is  strong,  the 
stomach  and  other  organs  of  digestion  are  capacious.  The 
circulatory  system  needs  size  and  strength,  as  it  must  supply 
abundance  of  material  for  the  production  of  milk.  The 
udder  is  well  shaped  and  large.  / 

Shape  of  the  dairy  cow. — The  typical  dairy  cow  has 
what  is  called  a  wedge  conformation,  or  shape.  The  body 
outline,  whether  viewed  from  side,  top,  or  front,  roughly 
resembles  a  wedge. 


276 


AGRICULTURE 


The  side^  wedge  has  its  base  in  a  line  formed  by  the  depth 
of  the  body  through  the  hips  to  the  lower  extremity  of  the 
udder,  with  the  point  of  the  wedge  at  the  head.  The  top 
wedge  has  its  base  in  a  line  across  the  width  of  the  hips, 
and  its  point  at  the  withers.    The  front  wedge  has  its  base 


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8boald«ri             IT. 
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Oropi                    10. 
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Ramp                   28.     MUk  rilai 
Pin  bon«          27.    UUk  vMla 

T»a 

Parts  of  a  dairy  cow  shown  as  an  aid  in  judging. 

in  a  line  across  the  floor  of  the  chest,  and  its  point  at  the 
top  of  the  withers. 

It  is  readily  seen  that  the  shape  given  the  body  by  these 
three  wedge  conformations  allows  a  generous  amount  of 
room  for  the  digestive  and  circulatory  systems  and  the 
udder.  This  form  does  not,  however,  give  a  frame  capable 
of  taking  on  a  large  amount  of  flesh,  and  is  therefore  not 
adapted  to  beef  cattle. 


CATTLE  277 

3.    Judging  the  Dairy  Cow 

Various  score-cards  are  in  use  for  the  judging  of  dairy 
cows.  Judging  by  use  of  the  score-card  trains  in  accurate 
observation  and  judgment,  and  shows  the  relative  value  of 
the  different  points.  Secure  a  score-card  from  your  state 
college  of  agriculture  or  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  learn  to  use  it  in  judging  cattle. 

4.    Selecting  the  Dairy  Cow  by  Milk  Tests 

The  profit  from  a  dairy  cow  depends  on  two  factors, 
(1)  the  amount  of  milk  produced,  and  (2)  the  percentage 
of  butter-fat  in  the  milk.  The  first  of  these  questions  can 
be  determined  by  weighing  the  milk ;  the  second,  by  testing 
the  milk  with  the  Babcock  milk  test. 

Testing  the  milk  of  different  cows. — In  order  to  de- 
termine the  record  of  each  cow  of  the  herd,  the  milk  must 
be  weighed  and  tested  regularly  throughout  the  season.  The 
testing  and  weighing  may  be  done  daily,  though  this  fre- 
quent a  test  is  hardly  necessary  for  practical  farm  purposes. 
A  plan  followed  by  many  farmers  is  to  weigh  the  milk  daily, 
and  test  the  butter-fat  of  both  night's  milk  and  morning's 
milk  once  a  month. 

Making  the  Babcock  test  for  butter-fat. — It  is  not 
the  quantity  of  milk  alone  that  determines  the  value  of  a 
cow.  Practically  all  milk  and  cream  now  sold  from  the 
farm  for  butter-making  purposes  are  paid  for,  not  by  weight 
or  bulk,  but  by  the  amount  of  butter-fat  they  contain.  The 
purpose  of  the  Babcock  test  is  to  measure  the  percentage 
of  butter-fat  in  milk.  Every  dairy  farm  should  regularly 
use  this  test. 

The  materials  for  making  the  Babcock  test  are  (1)  a 
hand-power  centrifugal  tester;  (2)  two  or  more  milk  test- 
bottles  ;  (3)  a  pipette  to  measure  the  milk  :  (4)  a  small  glass 


278 


AGRICULTURE 


measure  for  acid;  (5)  sulphuric  acid  with  specific  gravity  of 
1.82;  (6)  hot  water.  The  necessary  apparatus  can  be 
bought  for  about  five  dollars,  though  a  fuller  equipment 
may  cost  as  much  as  twenty  dollars.  Full  directions  for 
making  the  test  come  with  each  set  of  apparatus. 

Steps  in  the  Babcock  test. — The  Babcock  test  is  not 
difficult  to  make,  nor  does  it  require  much  time.    Yet  great 


A  Galloway  prize  vviuner. 


care  must  be  taken  if  the  results  are  to  be  trustworthy.    The 
following  are  the  steps  required  in  making  the  test: 

1.  Stir  the  milk  thoroughly  before  taking  the  sample. 

2.  Fill  the  pipette  to  the  height  shown  by  the  mark. 

3.  Empty  the  pipette  into  the  test-bottle,  blowing  to  drive 
all  the  milk  out. 

4.  Fill  the  acid  measure  to  the  mark  shown  with  sulphuric 
acid,  and  add  to  the  test-bottle. 

5.  Shake  the  bottle  to  mix  the  milk  and  acid  thoroughly. 


CATTLE  279 

6.  Place  the  bottles  in  the  machine,  and  whirl  five  minntes. 

7.  Add  hot  water  to  each  bottle  until  filled  to  bottom  of 
neck,  and  whirl  one  minute. 

8.  Add  more  hot  water  to  bring  the  top  of  the  fat  nearly 
to  the  top  of  the  marks  on  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  and  whirl 
one   minute. 

9.  Read  the  per  cent,  of  fat  in  the  neck  of  the  bottle;  this 
indicates  the  quality  of  the  milk. 

10.  Empty  the  test  bottles  and  wash. 

The  percentage  of  butter-fat  ought  to  be  not  less  than 
three  and  five-tenths,  and  should  range  up  to  five  or  occa- 
sionally even  six  in  the  milk  of  the  better  cows. 

5.    Dairy  Breeds 

Dairymen  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  type  of  cow  that  is 
most  profitable.  Some  prefer  what  they  call  a  "general- 
purpose  cow,"  combining  as  far  as  possible  the  qualities  of 
both  dairy  and  beef  breeds.  Such  animals  are  usually  of 
large  frame,  take  on  flesh  readily,  and  so  are  easily  con- 
verted into  beef  when  this  is  more  profitable  than  milking. 
Other  dairymen  select  the  pure  dairy  breeds,  preferring  to 
get  their  profit  out  of  the  milk  produced,  rather  than  from 
the  beef.  Which  is  the  better  plan  will  depend  on  local 
conditions  and  demands. 

Choosing  the  dairy  breed. — It  is  impossible  to  select 
any  one  breed  of  dairy  cattle  as  the  best  under  all  condi- 
tions. Some  are  noted  for  producing  large  quantities  of 
milk,  and  others  for  producing  milk  rich  in  butter-fat.  Some 
do  best  when  allowed  a  wide  range  for  foraging,  and  others 
when  they  are  kept  close  and  fed  high.  Some  give  a  large 
flow  of  milk  for  a  short  season,  and  others  a  smaller  flow 
for  a  longer  time.  The  dairyman  should  decide  what  par- 
ticular qualities  are  best  adapted  to  his  needs,  and  then 
select  the  breed  that  will  meet  these  needs. 

Leading     dairy     breeds. — Among     the     best-known 


"Banastine  Belle  de  Kol,"  a  champion  Holstein  cow  with  a 
record  of  1  .nr)S.84  poxmds  of  butter-fat  in  365  days. 


Another  dairy  champion  of  the  United  States,  "May  Rllma," 
a  Guernsey.  Her  record  for  3G5  days  was  19,039.5  pounds  of 
milk  and  1,059.59  pounds  of  butter-fat 


281 


breeds  of  dairy  cattle  are  the  Holstein,  or  Holstein-Friesian, 
as  they  are  officially  named ;  the  Jersey ;  the  Guernsey ;  and 
the  Ayrshire.  The  Shorthorns  are  also  a  favorite  class, 
combining  in  large  degree  both  dairy  and  beef  qualities. 
Records  kept  for  one  year  in  various  experiment  stations  of 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  show  the  fol- 
lowing average  ratings  as  milk  producers  of  the  first  four 
of  these  breeds  in  the  station  herds : 

Pounds        Per  cent.        Pounds         Per  cent. 
Breed  of  milk  of    fat  of  fat         total  solids 

Holstein   8699  3.45  300  12.99 

Jersey    5508  5.14  283  14.2 

Guernsey 5509  4.98  274  14.2 

Ayrshire    6533  3.85  252  12.98 

Average    6562.25  4.355  277.25  13.5925 

6.     Feeding  Dairy  Cozvs 

Just  as  the  soil  must  contain  the  food  elements  needed 
in  the  growth  of  the  plant,  so  the  dairy  cow's  rations  must 
contain  the  elements  required  to  produce  milk  and  upbuild 
the  body.  If  proper  food  is  not  supplied,  either  the  amount 
of  milk  or  its  quality  will  be  sure  to  suffer.  Only  three 
different  food  elements,  or  nutrients,  are  likely  to  run  short 
in  the  ordinary  rations  of  the  cow  >  these  are  (1)  protein, 
(2)  carbohydrate,  and  (3)  fat. 

Protein. — Protein  is  required  in  the  animal  body  for 
the  making  of  all  muscular  parts,  blood  and  connective 
tissue.  It  supplies  nearly  one-third  of  the  solid  part  of  milk, 
going  to  form  the  curd  and  albumen. 

It  is  fortunate  that  the  nitrogenous  plants  so  valuable 
in  building  up  the  soil  are  also  rich  in  protein.  Alfalfa, 
clover,  cow-peas,  soy-beans,  the  vetches  and  other  legumes 
are  therefore  desirable  as  a  part  of  the  dairy  ration.    Bran, 


282'  AGRICULTURE 

finseed  meal,  cottonseed-meal,  gluten  feed  and  oats  are  also 
rich  in  protein.  Protein  should  make  up  approximately  one- 
sixth  of  the  cow's  ration  during  the  milking  season ;  no 
other  food  can  take  its  place.  It  is  the  most  expensive  part 
of  the  ration,  and  should  be  secured  as  far  as  possible  from 
home-grown  legumes. 

Carbohydrates. — The  carbohydrates  are  necessary  to 
supply  energy,  heat  and  fat  for  the  animal  body,  and  sugar 
and  fat  in  the  milk.  All  the  common  grains  are  rich  in 
carbohydrates,  which  are  the  cheapest  nutrient  of  the  cow's 
rations".  Among  the  more  common  carbohydrate  feeds  are 
com,  corn  silage,  corn  stover,  oats  straw,  millet  hay,  sugar 
beets  and  dried  beet  pulp.  Timothy  hay  should  not  form 
a  part  of  the  dairy  ration,  as  it  has  few  of  the  elements  re- 
quired in  producing  milk. 

Fat. — Fat  is  used  for  practically  the  same  purposes 
as  the  carbohydrates  in  maintaining  the  body  and  produc- 
ing milk.  It  is  contained  in  some  degree  in  all  feeds, 
though  in  smaller  quantities  than  carbohydrates,  and  in 
more  concentrated  form.  It  has  been  found  that  one  pound 
of  fat  will  serve  the  same  purpose  in  the  dairy  ration  as 
two  and  one-fourth  pounds  of  carbohydrates. 

The  balanced  ration. — By  a  balanced  ration  is  meant 
a  ration  which  contains  the  right  digestible  proportion  of 
each  kind  of  nutrient  demanded  by  the  animal.  The  term 
nutritive  ratio  is  used  when  speaking  of  the  relation  of  pro- 
tein to  carbohydrate  and  fat  in  the  ration.  The  nutritive 
ratio  of  the  dairy  ration  is  1:6;  this  is  to  say,  one  part  of 
digestible  protein  to  six  parts  of  carbohydrates  and  fat  com- 
bined. The  following  tables  show  several  balanced  and 
economical  rations  for  dairy  cows:* 

*  (Purdue  Ext.  Bui  No.  21.) 


CATTLE 


283 


Ration  I. 

Corn  silage 30  pounds 

Cow-pea   hay   __  10        " 

Corn   stover 2        " 

Corn  6        " 

Cottonseed-meal     1.5     " 


Ration  III. 


Clover  hay 18  pounds 

Corn  5        " 

Wheat    bran    or 

oats 6        " 

Cottonseed-meal     1        " 


Ration  II. 

Sugar  beets 25  pounds 

Alfalfa  hay 10 

Corn  stover 5        " 

Corn    5        " 

Dried  brewers' 
grains    5        " 

Ration  IV. 

Corn  silage 30    pounds 

Canadian  pea  and 

oat  hay 10 

Oats 5 

Gluten    feed 4        " 


It  must  be  remembered  that,  no  matter  what  the  feeds 
used  to  supply  the  protein,  carbohydrate  and  fat,  there  must 
also  be  a  certain  amount  of  roughage  in  the  ration.  All 
browsing  or  grazing  animals  require  bulky  feed,  and  can  not 
thrive  on  concentrated  material  alone. 


7.    Producing  Clean  Milk 

Milk  is  perfectly  clean  as  it  comes  from  the  cow.  It  is 
easily  tainted,  however,  either  by  filth  that  may  fall  into 
the  pail  during  the  milking,  or  from  dirty  utensils.  Dirty 
milk  makes  dissatisfied  customers,  endangers  the  health  of 
users,  especially  children,  hastens  souring,  makes  a  lower 
grade  of  butter,  and  indicates  shiftlessness  and  low  stand- 
ards of  dairying. 

The  cow  barn. — ^The  cow  barn  should  be  constructed 
for  the  comfort,  cleanliness  and  hygiene  of  its  occupants. 
It  should  be  well  ventilated  and  have  plenty  of  light.  The 
floor  should  be  of  some  hard  material,  preferably  cement, 
and  water-tight.  The  stalls  should  be  the  right  length  for 
the  cows,  and  have  a  shallow  gutter  at  the  rear  with  slope 


'19'-^  o[   Hood   Farm    189748 


A   >li.iiij|..i>,,    ,kr.-fy   t-uw   with   a   butter-l'uL    record    ui'   DUiJ.14 
pouuds  iu  365  days. 


A  chnmplon  Shorthorn  cow.  n  seneral  purpose  breed  adapted 
both  to  beef  and  milk  production.. 


CATTLE  ■  285 

enough  toward  one  end  to  permit  drainage.  Instead  of  a 
feed  manger  in  front,  there  should  be  a  Hquid-tight  trough, 
also  with  a  sHght  slope,  that  it  may  be  washed  out.  All 
floors  should  be  kept  thoroughly  washed  by  means  of  a 
hose  and  stiff  brushes. 

Cleanliness  in  milking. — Before  the  milking  is  begun, 
both  the  cow  and  the  milker  should  be  clean.  If  the  cow 
is  dusty,  the  dust  should  be  well  brushed  out.  The  udder 
should  be  wiped  clean,  washed,  or  sponged  off,  as  may  be 
required.  The  milker's  hands  should  be  freshly  cleansed,  as 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  keep  the  milk  from  touching  them. 

Special  suits  should  be  kept  for  milking,  and  should  be 
frequently  washed.  The  practise  of  putting  on  old,  greasy 
and  unwashed  clothes,  simply  to  save  soiling  other  garments 
while  milking,  is  too  filthy  to  be  permitted  in  any  dairy. 
All  utensils  should  be  kept  in  a  perfectly  clean  place,  and 
well  scalded  once  each  day. 

A  careful  analysis  of  the  dirt  contained  in  milk  shows 
about  nine-tenths  of  it  to  be  cow  manure.  The  other  tenth 
is  hair  from  the  cow,  dirt  from  the  cow  or  the  milker,  par- 
ticles of  the  feed  used,  and  disease  germs  from  the  cow  or 
hands  of  the  milker.  No  dairyman  should  ask  a  consumer 
to  eat  such  an  array  of  filth  as  this. 

Straining  the  milk. — Much  of  the  dirt  that  gets  into 
the  milk  can  not  be  strained  out,  since  it  fully  dissolves  and 
will  pass  through  the  strainer  as  easily  as  the  milk  itself. 
A  good  strainer  will,  however,  remove  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  insoluble  matter. 

A  wire  mesh  strainer  should  never  be  used.  The  strainer 
should  be  cone-shaped,  with  gauze  and  absorbent  cotton 
forming  the  outlet.  One  thickness  of  the  cotton  is  placed 
between  four  thicknesses  of  gauze,  two  on  each  side,  and 
held  in  place  by  a  ring  which  fits  over  the  edges  and  at- 
taches it  to  the  bottom  of  the  receptacle.    The  cotton  should 


286 


AGRICULTURE 


1/ 


tJe  destroyed  after  each  straining,  and  never  used  a  second 
time.  The  additional  expense  for  this  type  of  strainer  is 
slight,  and  should  keep  no  progressive  dairyman  from  us- 
ing it. 

^  Cooling  the  milk. — After  cleanliness,  the  next  essen- 
tial to  good  care  of  milk  is  quick  cooling.  So  important 
is  quick  cooling  to  prevent  souring  of  milk  and  keep  it  in 


Auchenbrain  Brown  Kate  4th,  Ayrshire  cow  with  a  365-day 
butter-fat  record  of  917.G  pounds. 

good  condition  that  a  higher  price  is  often  paid  for  milk 
properly  cooled  than  for  uncooled  milk. 

For  the  best  results,  some  form  of  cooling  apparatus  is 
necessary.  Various  machines  for  this  purpose  can  be  had 
for  from  ten  to  twenty-five  dollars.  An  average  of  about 
five  cents'  worth  of  ice  is  required  for  each  hundred  pounds 
of  milk  during  the  warm  months.  Milk  should  be  cooled 
down  to  forty-five  degrees  in  a  few  minutes  of  time. 


^.^ATTfcE-^  X  287 

8.     Beef  Breeds 

Larger  profit  can  be  secured  from  dairy  than  from  beef 
cattle  with  the  sanr^  amount  of  feed,  bjuf'  dairy  animals  re- 
quire a  much  greater  amount -of  la5or  and  a  more  costly 
equipment.  The  work  necessary  to  care  for  fifteen  or 
twenty  dairy  cows  will  be  sufficient  to  tend  two  hundred 
beef  animals.  Properly  managed,  the  raising  and  feeding 
of  cattle  for  beef  can  be  made  highly  profitable. 

The  beef-producing  type. — Beef  and  dairy  cattle 
differ  widely  in  their  type.  For  the  production  of  beef, 
the  animal  must  be  able  to  use  a  large  proportion  of  its 
food  in  the  putting  on  of  flesh ;  it  must  also  have  a  form 
capable  of  holding  a  large  amount  of  muscle  and  fat. 

The  beef  animal  should  have  a  conformation  that  (1) 
favors  the  production  and  carrying  of  flesh;  (2)  supplies 
the  best  proportion  of  good  cuts  of  meat  on  the  block;  (3) 
indicates  good  constitution  and  feeding  capacity. 

The  form  of  beef  animals. — Instead  of  the  wedge  con- 
formation of  the  dairy  cgi^rbe^ cattle  should  in  their  shape 
present  a  series  of  /rectangles)  that  is,  they  should  be 
"blocky."  The  bodyV^is  reasonably  long,  and  deep,  with 
short  sturdy  legs.  The"^iole  form  presents  a  plump,  full- 
shaped  appearance.  The  back  is  broad  and  straight,  with 
ribs  well  arched  to  give  breadth  to  the  body.  The  quarters 
are  well  filled  and  thick.  The  skin  is  pliable,  rather  thick, 
and  the  coat  smooth  and  glossy. 

Judging  beef  cattle  with  the  score-card. — Because  of 
the  difference  in  type  between  dairy  and  beef  cattle,  it  is 
best  to  use  separate  score-cards  in  judging  them.  Secure  a 
score-card  from  yot^r  state  college  of  agriculture  or  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  After  studying 
it  and  judging  one  or  more  animals  under  the  direction  of 
the  teacher,  each  member  of  the  class  should  judge  several 


CATTLE  289 

beef  animals  from  the  home  herd,  asking  his  father  to  help 
in  the  judging. 

Beef  breeds. — Among  the  chief  breeds  of  beef  cattle  in 
the  United  States  are  Shorthorns,  or  Durhams,  Herefords, 
Aberdeen-Angus,  and  Galloways.  Several  different  breeds 
have  also  developed  a  polled,  or  hornless,  type.  Except  for 
tl3&:i«elc^orhorjis,  the  polled  breeds  closely  resemble  the  par- 
:nt  breed  from)  which  they  were  derived. 

Feeding  beef  cattle. — Feeding  grain  and  roughage 
to  beef  cattle  is  a  more  profitable  way  to  market  them  than 
them  off  the  farm.  In  this  way  the  fertility  of  the 
soil  is  also  conserved,  and  better  crops  produced. 

The  fattening  ration  for  cattle  is  slightly  different  from 
the  dairy  ration,  the  nutrient  ratio  for  beef  being  1 :  7,  as 
against  1 :  6  for  milk  production.  This  is  to  say,  that  the 
fattening  animal  should  have  a  balanced  ration  consisting 
of  one  part  protein  food  for  every  seven  parts  of  carbohy- 
drates and  fats. 

9. "  Tuberculosis  in  Cattle 

Tuberculosis  is  a  comrnon  disease  among  cattle.  It  is 
more  common  among  dairy  cattle  than  beef  cattle.  This  is 
probably  because  dairy  cows  are  kept  to  a  greater  age  than 
beef  cattle,  and  are  more  closely  confined  in  barns.  The 
effects  of  tuberculosis  in  a  dairy  herd  are  (1)  lowered  milk 
production  and  final  loss  of  the  tuberculous  animal  by  death, 
and  (2)  danger  of  giving  the  disease  to  people,  especially 
children,  who  use  the  milk. 

Prevalence  of  tuberculosis  in  herds. — There  is  no 
way  of  telling  the  exact  number  of  cattle  affected  by  tuber- 
culosis, as  comparatively  few  herds  are  examined  for  the 
disease.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  as  high  as  seventy  to 
eighty  per  cent,  of  the  cows  in  a  herd  diseased,  some  with 


290  AGRICULTURE 

ftie  disease  just  starting,  others  with  it  well  along,  and  still 
others  in  the  last  stages.  Since  tuberculosis  is  contagious, 
it  is  evident  that  when  it  once  gets  started  in  a  herd  it  is 
hard  to  stamp  out. 

The  tuberculin  test. — It  is  impossible  to  make  certain 
of  the  presence  or  absence  of  tuberculosis  in  a  herd  by  any 
set  of  symptoms.  The  only  sure  way  is  by  the  tuberculin 
test.  This  test  is  required  by  law  of  all  dairy  herds  in  a 
number  of  states.  Experts  have  shown  that  tuberculin,  if 
properly  used,  will  reveal  the  presence  of  tuberculosis  in  at 
least  ninety-eight  per  cent,  of  the  cases. 

Tuberculin  is  a  fluid  in  which  tubercle  germs  have  been 
grown,  but  from  which  they  have  all  been  removed.  This 
fluid  is  injected  with  a  hypodermic  needle  under  the  skin 
of  all  the  animals  of  a  herd  which  is  being  tested.  It  will 
not  injure  well  animals  nor  give  them  the  disease.  Animals 
that  have  tuberculosis  reveal  this  fact  by  a  feverish  condi- 
tion which  arises  from  eight  to  twelve  hours  after  the  tu- 
berculin is  administered.  Well  animals  show  no  such  re- 
action. 

Suppressing  tuberculosis  in  cattle. — Little  can  be 
done  in  the  way  of  treatment  to  cure  tuberculosis  in  cattle. 
Those  that  have  contracted  it  in  a  mild  form  often  recover. 
Animals  found  to  be  well  advanced  with  the  disease  should 
at  once  be  slaughtered.  All  diseased  stock  should  be  sep- 
arated from  well  animals,  and  kept  in  diflferent  barns  and 
pastures. 

The  milk  from  mildly  diseased  cows  may  be  used,  pro- 
viding it  is  first  carefully  pasteurised.  To  pasteurize  milk, 
it  is  kept  at  a  temperature  of  one  hundred  and  forty-nine 
degrees  for  twenty  minutes,  or  one  hundred  and  seventy- 
six  degrees  for  five  minutes.  This  heating  is  sufficient  to 
kill  the  germs  of  the  tuberculosis. 


CATTLE  291 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Are  the  cattle  on  your  home  farm  of  dairy  breed, 
beef  breed,  or  "general  purpose"  breed?  Talk  with  your 
father  and  learn  the  lineage  of  each  of  your  milk  cows. 
Are  they  "blooded,"  "grade,"  or  "scrub"  stock?  Is  your 
herd  being  "selected"  toward  any  pure  breed? 

2.  Is  the  milk  produced  by  your  cows  weighed  and 
tested  for  butter-fat?  If  so,  how  does  the  record  of  the 
herd  compare  with  the  herds  referred  to  in  the  chap- 
ter? If  no  tests  are  being  made,  talk  with  your  father  about 
getting  the  apparatus  for  the  Babcock  test'.  After  making 
the  test  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher,  bring  samples 
of  milk  from  home  and  make  the  test  for  several  of  your 
cows  with  the  school  tester. 

3.  Weigh  the  milk  produced  by  each  of  your  cows  for  a 
week,  keeping  a  careful  record.  Now  have  your  father 
help  you  estimate  what  each  cow  will  produce  during  one 
year,  taking  into  account  the  length  of  time  each  one  milks, 
and  the  changes  due  to  season,  etc. 

4.  Weigh   carefully   the   feed   that   is   regularly   given 
*one  of  your  cows  for  one  day.     Compare  with  the  sample 

rations  shown  in  the  chapter.  Are  you  feeding  a  balanced 
ration  ?  If  not,  in  which  nutrient  is  it  short  ?  What  should 
be  done? 

5.  Make  a  careful  study  of  the  distinguishing  marks  of 
each  of  the  chief  dairy  breeds,  and  learn  to  identify  dif- 
ferent breeds  at  sight. 

6.  Consider  the  conditions  of  your  home  dairy  barn. 
Has  it  plenty  of  light?  Is  it  well  ventilated?  Are  the 
stalls  the  right  length  for  the  cows  ?  Is  the  floor  tight  ?  Are 
the  rear  gutter  and  the  feed  trough  of  a  good  type  ?  Is  the 
barn  clean f    Does  it  smell  bad? 

7.  What  steps  are  taken  in  your  dairy  toward 
cleaning  the  cows  each  time  before  milking?  Do  the  cows 
get  soiled  from  the  stalls?  Are  the  milkers'  hands  washed 
before  milking?  What  kind  of  a  strainer  do  you  use?  Is 
your  milk  clean  when  it  is  ready  for  cooling. 

8.  Has  your  state  a  law  requiring  the  tuberculin  test 
for  dairy  herds?     Has  your  father's  herd  had   the  test? 


292  AGRICULTURE 

If  so,  how  often  is  the  test  applied?  With  what  results? 
Have  you  any  cows  with  a  cough?  With  coats  that  look 
rough  and  dead?  Are  any  of  your  cows  losing  in  flesh  or 
amount  of  milk  without  seeming  cause  ?  Have  any  of  them 
lumps  in  their  udders?  All  these  things  are  symptoms  of 
tuberculosis. 

9.  Write  an  essay  on  how  to  improve  dairy  conditions 
and  profits  in  your  region, 

10.  Show  how  to  keep  a  book  account  with  the  cattle 
interests  of  the  farm. 

11.  Indicate  on  the  map  of  the  United  States  the  dairy 
and  beef  producing  sections.  Consult. the  last  census  report 
and  insert  in  each  state  the  amount  of  beef  and  dairy  pro- 
duction. 

10.    Demonstrations  as  Related  to  Cattle 

1.  Demonstrate  how  to  make  a  butter- fat  test  with  a 
milk-testing  machine. 

2.  Demons^^rate  by  the  use  of  the  blackboard  or  chart  a 
good  and  a  poor  dairy  type  of  cattle. 

3.  Show  by  drawing  or  chart  a  good  type  of  beef  cat- 
tle. Diagram  the  beef  unit  so  as  to  show  the  various  grades 
of  meat. 

4.  Show  how  to  keep  a  record  of  the  Babcock  test  for 
butter-fat  for  five  cows. 

5.  Demonstrate  how  to  cool  milk  and  cream. 

Other  demonstrations  can  be  carried  on  in  connection 
with  the  cattle  industry,  such  as  butter  making,  cheese  mak- 
ing, showing  the  use  of  milk  in  various  kinds  of  food,  pas- 
teurizing milk,  cleaning  cows,  mixing  various  types  of  feed 
and  making  tuberculin  tests. 


11.     Cattle  Play  Contests 

1.  Cattle  judging  contest. 

2.  Breed  naming  contest. 

3.  Record  keeping  contest. 


P< 


294  AGRICULTURE 

■     4.     Milking  contest. 

5,  Story  writing  contest  on  "Origin  and  History  of 
Cattle"  and  other  kindred  subjects. 

12.     Cattle  Club  Projects 

There  are  three  very  practical  and  interesting  club 
projects  possible  in  connection  with  this  subject.  The  first 
and  most  important  perhaps  is  the  dairy  club,  where  club 
members  agree  to  test  for  butter-fat  a  certain  number  of 
dairy  cows  or  the  entire  herd  on  their  father's  farm.  The 
basis  of  award  may  be  as  follows: 

1.  Number  of  cows  tested 30 

2.  Records  and   helpful   deductions 30 

3.  Skill  in  making  test,  shown  in  demonstration 20 

4.  Essay  "How  To  Make  the  Test,  Its  Importance  to  Dairy- 

Farmers"    1 20 

Total  score 100 

The  baby  beef  club  project. — The  object  of  this  pro- 
ject is  to  encourage  the  production  of  beef  cattle  and  to 
teach  the  proper  methods  of  management  and  feeding  of 
beef  stock  so  as  to  secure  the  maximum  returns  for  money, 
time  and  energy  expended.  The  baby  beef  club  member 
should  be  required  to  take  a  calf  at  a  certain  age,  a  yearling, 
or  two-year-old,  and  care  for  it,  keeping  a  record  of  all  ex- 
penditures, daily  rations,  and  cost  of  feed  for  six  months 
or  a  year,  with  a  view  to  showing  maximum  results  from 
the  management  for  the  beef  market.  It  is  advisable  as  far 
as  possible  to  have  members  grow  their  own  feed,  or  at  least 
a  part  of  it,  and  to  keep  an  accurate  account  of  the  cost  of 
production  of  this  feed  as  applied  to  the  baby  beef  club 
project  work.  The  basis  of  award  may  be  as  follows : 


CATTLE  295 

1.  Condition  of  beef  at  end  of  period,  judged  by  score-card 

of  beef  standard  cattle 30 

2.  Net  profit  and  cost  of  production 30 

3.  Records  and  story  on  the  club  project 20 

4.  Selection  of  breed  for  beef  purposes 20 

Total  score 100 

Dairy  record  club  project. — The  object  of  this  club 
project  is  first  to  teach  methods  of  keeping  accurate  rec- 
ords of  cost  of  management,  feed,  pastures,  and  milk  pro- 
duction for  each  individual  cow  in  the  dairy  herd,  and  to 
teach  through  these  records  the  difference  between  a  prof- 
itable dairy  cow  and  a  "boarder." 

It  is  possible  to  combine  the  dairy  herd  club  project 
with  the  butter-fat  testing  work.  The  basis  of  award  in 
this  particular  club  project  may  be : 

1.  Number'of  cows  of  which  completerecords  were  kept 30 

2.  Condition  of  records,  neatness,  accuracy,  etc 30 

3.  Conclusions  and  valuable  recommendations 20 

4.  Oral  or  written  discussion  of  "How   I   Kept   My  Rec- 

ords"    20 

Total  score 100 


CHAPTER  XX 
HORSES 

MORE  than  twenty  million  horses  are  to  be  found  on 
the  farms  of  the  United  States.  These  horses  on  the 
farms  alone  are  worth  the  enormous  sum  of  two  and  a 
quarter  billion  dollars,  or  more  than  all  our  cattle,  both 
dairy  and  beef.  The  raising  of  horses  is  therefore  one  of 
the  leading  industries  connected  with  agriculture. 

1.  The  Leading  Horse  Raising  States 
Slightly  more  than  fifty-two  per  cent,  of  all  the  horses 
found  on  the  farms  of  this  country  are  raised  in  the  follow- 
ing ten  states :  Iowa,  Illinois,  Texas,  Kansas,  Missouri,  Ne- 
braska, Ohio,  Indiana,  Minnesota  and  Oklahoma.  The  farms 
of  Iowa  and  Illinois  support  approximately  one  and  one-half 
million  horses  for  each  state ;  Texas,  Kansas,  Missouri  and 
Nebraska  have  more  than  a  million  each,  and  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Minnesota  and  Oklahoma,  more  than  three-fourths  of  a 
million  each. 

Proportion  supplied  by  each  state. — ^The  proportion 
of  all  the  horses  found  on  our  farms  which  is  supplied  by 
each  of  these  ten  leading  horse  states  is  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing chart: 

Iowa  7.05% 

Illinois  7.07o 

Texas  5.5% 

Kansas  5.0% 

Missouri  5.0% 

Nebraska  5.0% 

Ohio  4.4% 

Indiana  4.2% 

Minnesota  4.1% 

Oklahoma  3.7% 

296 


HORSES  297 

Horses  are  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  climates,  and  can 
be  successfully  produced  in  every  state.  The  market  for 
horses  is  good  and,  under  skilful  management,  they  can  be 
be  raised  with  profit  on  almost  all  farms. 

1.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  horses  on  your  farm,  and 
have  your  father  help  you  estimate  the  value  of  each.  Now 
compare  the  value  of  your  horses  with  the  value  of  your 
cattle;  your  hogs;  your  sheep. 

2.  After  each  member  of  the  class  has  made  the  com- 
putation asked  in  No.  1,  put  all  the  results  together  and 
make  similar  comparisons  for  the  value  of  different  farm 
stock  for  all  farms  represented.  Compare  the  relative  val- 
ues of  horses,  cattle  and  hogs  for  your  region  with  the  rela- 
tive values  of  these  animals  for  tjtie  entire  country,  taking 
the  necessary  figures  from  ih^^espective  chapters  of  this 

book.  '  ' 

■     , '  / 

2.'    Classes  of  Horsed 

Class  and  grade.— Regardless  of  breed,  horses  are 
classed  in  the  markets  according  to  the  uses  to  which  they 
are  suited.  The  different  classes  are:  draft  horses,  chunks, 
wagon  horses,  carriage  horses,  road  horses,  saddle  horses 
and  ponies.  Animals  are  graded  within  each  class  as  choice, 
good,  medium,  common  and  inferior.  The  class  to  which 
a  horse  belongs  depends  on  (1)  weight,  (2)  height,  and 
(3)  conformation,  or  build,  and  (4)  quality. 

Draft  horses. — To  be  in  the  draft  class  a  horse  in 
good  flesh  must  weigh  from  one  thousand  six  hundred 
pounds  to  more  than  a  ton.  The  height  ranges  from  15-2 
to  17-3  hands.  The  form  of  draft  horses  is  broad,  com- 
pact and  rugged,  with  legs  short  as  compared  with  the 
depth  of  the  body.  This  build  brings  the  weight  close  to 
the  ground,  where  it  can  exert  the  greatest  power  in  draw- 
ing a  load.  Draft  horses  are  used  largely  for  city  teaming, 
for  logging  and  the  like. 


298 


AGRICULTURE 


Chunks. — The  form  of  this  class  of  horses  is  indicated 
by  their  name.  Chunks  are  heavy-set,  short  legged,  com- 
pactly built  horses,  of  lighter  weight  than  draft  horses. 
Their  weight  varies  from  eight  hundred  pounds  among  the 
lightest  of  the  southern  chunks  to  one  thousand  five  hundred 
and  fifty  pounds  in  the  North  and  East.    The  height  is  from 


A  pair  of  draft  horses. 

15  to  15-3  hands.     The  typical  farm  horse  belongs  to  the 
chunk  class. 

Wagon  horses. — Wagon  horses  are  required  to  com- 
bine weight  with  action  and  endurance.  City  delivery  and 
express,  fire  and  artillery  horses  are  selected  from  this 
class.  They  must  have  sound  feet ;  strong  clean  legs ;  broad 
deep  chests ;  and  show  good  constitution  and  quality.  Their 
weight  is  from  one  thousand  and  fifty  pounds  to  one  thou- 


A  fine  tj'pe  of  draft  horse- 


"•      r >.  --^^      ^ 

^P^'^^^^^^N'      .     -             ;      t       1 

^^^^H^  W**V*»J3^  .^   ^"                                   -         -  -^^^^VP^^^^^^^^^^^^H 

A  good  pair  of  chunks,  and  their  offspring  by  pure-bred  sires. 


300 


AGRICULTURE 


sand  seven  hundred  pounds;  and  their  height  from  15  to 
17-2  hands. 

Carriage  horses. — ^The  carriage,  or  heavy  harness, 
class  are  required  to  have  good  action,  a  fair  amount  of 
speed,  and  to  be  of  a  pleasing,  stylish  form  and  carriage. 
The  head  should  be  small,  and  well-set,  on  a  long  arching 
neck.  The  body  should  be  smooth  and  rounded,  the  back 
short  and  well  coupled,  with  a  long  level  croup,  and  the 


A  good  tenm  of  heavy  carriage  horses,  showing  fine  character 
and  action. 

hindquarters  strong  and  well  developed.  The  height  ranges 
from  14-1  to  16-2  hands,  and  the  weight  from  nine  hundred 
pounds  to  one  thousand  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds. 
The  carriage  class  supply  the  coach,  park  and  cab 
horses. 

Road  horses. — Road  or  light  harness  horses  are 
lighter  in  build,  more  angular  in  form,  and  possess  better 
action  than  the  carriage  class.  They  must  have  good  speed, 
life  and  quality.  They  are  used  for  light  and  fancy  driving, 
and  for  racing.   Their  weight  is  from  nine  hundred  to  one 


HORSES 


301 


thousand  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds,  and  their  height 
from  14-3  to  16  hands. 

Saddle  horses. — Saddle  horses  are  built  fcfr  ease  of 
action,  strength  and  sureness  of  foot.  They  are  also  re- 
quired to  have  mettle,  coupled  with  a  good  disposition  and 
intelligence.  The  withers  are  high  and  thin,  and  the  shoul- 
ders oblique.     The  back  must  be  short,  well  muscled,  and 


.^-  }k^  . 

^^m 

1 

A  good  saddle  horse. 

strongly  coupled,  and  the  gait  easy.  The  height  runs  from 
fourteen  hands  for  polo  ponies  to  sixteen  hands  for  hunters 
or  cavalry  horses.  The  weight  may  vary  from  eight  hun- 
dred and  fifty  to  one  thousand  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds. 
Ponies. — Ponies  are  chiefly  used  for  children,  and 
must  therefore  first  of  all  have  good  dispositions.  To  be 
in  the  pony  class,  the  height  must  be  under  fourteen  hands. 


302  AGRICULTURE 

The  body  is  deep  and  well  rounded,  the  legs  and  neck  are 
short,  the  croup  is  level,  and  the  quarters  are  strong  and  well 
developed. 

These  different  classes  of  horses  often  merge  into  one 
another  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  tell  in  which  of  two  classes  a 
certain  animal  belongs.  For  market  purposes  it  pays  to 
breed  for  well  marked  classes,  as  these  always  bring  higher 
prices  than  mixed  stock. 

1.  Study  each  horse  on  your  home  farm,  and  decide 
the  class  to  which  it  belongs.  If  the  type  is  not  clearly 
marked  in  any  case,  decide  what  two  classes  it  resembles. 

2.  Also  grade  each  horse  as  choice,  good,  medium,  com- 
mon, or  inferior  in  its  class.  Remember  that  to  be  "choice" 
the  animal  must  be  entirely  sound,  in  good  condition,  and 
possess  in  the  highest  degree  the  ideal  qualities  of  its  class. 
The  "inferior"  grade  is  the  very  worst  of  its  class.  The 
other  grades  lie  in  between  these  two  extremes. 

3.     Breeds  of  Horses 

While  the  breed  to  which  a  horse  belongs  has  little 
bearing  on  its  market  value  if  the  class  marks  are  strong 
and  the  grade  high,  yet  the  only  way  to  secure  class  and 
grade  is  by  pure  breeding.  Millions  of  dollars  are  being 
lost  by  American  farmers  p^ery  year  through  the  breed- 
ing of  grade  or  scrub  horsed. 

The  value  of  breeding. — An  excellent  illustration  of 
the  difference  in  market  value  between  pure-bred  and  grade- 
bred  horses  is  shown  in  the  case  of  Wisconsin  horses  (Bui. 
186,  Wis.  Ag.  Exp.  Sta.)  : 

Average  value  of  horses  by  ages 


4  to  6 

months  1  year  2  years  3  years   4  years 

From  pure-bred  sires— $78777"~$r3Z84  $196784  $218T00~$303X)0 

From  grade  sires S!.2S        85.00  127.50  156.45      200.20 

Difference    in    favor   of 

pure-bred  sires 27.52        47.84  59.34  61.55       102.80 


HORSES 


303 


This  table  is  very  convincing  when  it  is  remembered 
that  it  costs  no  more  in  care  and  feed  to  raise  a  well-bred 
horse  than  a  scrub.  The  farmer  who  uses  only  pure-bred 
sires  for  his  breeding  will  get  almost  fifty  dollars  more  for 
his  colts  as  yearlings  than  if  he  uses  grade  sires,  while  if  he 


A  typical  Perclieron. 


does  not  sell  until  the  colt  has  reached  maturity  he  will 
receive  at  least  one  hundred  dollars  more.  If  pure-bred 
dams  are  also  used,  the  difference  will  be  greater  still.  Will 
it  not  pay  well  to  "breed  up"  our  horses  ? 

Draft  breeds. — The  chief  breeds  of  draft  horses  in  the 
United  States  have  been  imported  from  Europe.  The  fa- 
vorite of  these  is  the  Percheron,  which  comes  from  France. 

21 


304 


AGRICULTURE 


The  Percherons  have  good  spirit,  are  strong-boned,  and 
have  sound  feet.  They  show  good  action,  have  a  high 
degree  of  intelligence,  and  respond  well  to  training. 

The  Clydesdales  come  from  Scotland.    They  are  longer 
in  build  than  Percherons,  have  smaller  bodies,  and  less  rug- 


Typicul  of  the  Auierlcuu  trotter  breed. 

ged  constitutions.  They  are  strongly  marked  by  a  heavy 
growth  of  hair  on  the  lower  part  of  the  leg,  especially  at 
the  fetlock.  For  use  in  wet  and  muddy  times  this  excess 
of  hair  is  a  disadvantage,  since  it  is  hard  to  keep  dry  and 
clean. 

The  Belgians  come  to  us  from  Belgium,  and  the  English 


HORSES  305 

Shires  from  England.  Both  are  excellent  breeds,  though 
they  have  not  yet  come  into  the  favor  enjoyed  by  the  Per- 
cherons,  or  even  the  Clydesdales. 

It  is  chiefly  from  the  heavier  breeds  that  come  all  our 
draft  horses,  chunks,  v^agoh  horses,  and  carriage,  or  heavy 
harness  horses.  A  comparatively  small  proportion  of  horses 
in  any  of  these  classes  is  as  yet  pure  bred,  most  being  a 
cross  with  grade  or  common  stock. 

The  lighter  breeds. — Relatively  few^  farmers  have 
undertaken  the  raising  of  the  lighter  and  speedier  breeds  of 
horses.  This  has  been  left  to  special  breeders  and  stock 
farms  that  make  a  specialty  of  horses.  The  heavier  breeds 
are  better  adapted  to  the  farm,  since  the  dams  can  then  be 
used  for  general  farm  work,  and  thus  serve  a  double  pur- 
pose and  thereby  add  to  the  profit. 

Among  the  lighter  breeds  raised  in  this  country,  the 
English  Hackney,  the  French  Coach,  and  the  German  Coach 
are  the  favorites  for  the  carriage  class.  For  lighter  road 
use  the  breeds  most  favored  are  the  American  Trotter,  the 
American  Saddle  horse  and  the  English  Thoroughbred. 

4.     Judging  Horses 

The  horse  is  to  many  people  the  most  interesting  animal 
on  the  farm.  The  satisfaction  and  profit  from  horse  raising 
depend  very  largely  on  the  breed,  class  and  grade.  For 
these  reasons  all  who  are  interested  in  farm  animals  should 
learn  to  judge  horses  readily  and  accurately. 

The  score-card. — Before  undertaking  to  use  the  score- 
card  in  actual  judging,  the  pupil  must  become  thoroughly 
familiar  with  all  its  points,  understanding  fully  the  re- 
quirements for  a  perfect  score  under  any  point.  With  this 
ideal  in  mind,  the  animal  is  to  be  examined,  and  the  score 
put  down  on  the  card.     Do  not  be  afraid  to  mark  off  for 


306  AGRICULTURE 

all  bad  points.  It  takes  a  good  animal  to  grade  eighty  per 
cent,  when  marked  by  an  expert  judge,  and  an  exceptional 
one  to  grade  ninety  per  cent.  Judges  do  not  usually  mark 
closer  than  one-fourth  per  cent,  on  any  point. 

-     5..   Common  Defects  and  Unsoundness  in  Horses 

Any  defect  or  unsoundness  lowers  the  value  of  a  horse. 
All  who  have  to  do  with  horses  should  be  able  to  identify 
the  more  common  faults,  and  know  their  causes.  (See  Pur- 
due Circular,  No.  29.) 

Defects  of  head,  eyes  and  ears — 

1.  Poll  evil;  sore  on  top  of  head,  caused  by  bruises. 

2.  Blindness;  either  with  or  without  defects  of  eyeball. 

3.  "Blue-eyed";  a  peculiar  bluish  color,  may  indicate  blind- 

ness. 

4.  Over-mobile  ears;  showing  viciousness  or  blindness. 

5.  Immobile  ears;  showing  deafness  or  lockjaw. 
Defects  of  the  mouth — 

1.  Nose    discharge;    indicating   catarrh,    glanders,    diseased 

molars. 

2.  Bit  sores,  showing  tender  mouth,  or  abuse. 

3.  Diseased  molars;  affect  health  and  interfere  with  eating. 

4.  "Parrot"  mouth;  upper  jaw  too  long,  front  teeth  project 

over  lower. 

5.  Undershot, jaw;  lower  jaw  short;  front  teeth  do  not  meet. 

6.  Clipped  tongue;  tip  cut  off  to  prevent  lolling. 
Defects  of  neck,  withers  and  shoulders — 

1.  Neck  sores;  caused  by  collar  wear  on  top  of  neck. 

2.  Fistula;  running  sore  on  withers  on  shoulders. 

3.  Collar  sores  and  boils;  dirty  and  ill-fitting  collars. 
Defects  of  feet  and  legs — 

1.  Shoe  boil;  sore  at  elbow  from  injury  by  shoe  while  lying 

down;  also  sore  from  harness  band. 

2.  Splint;  (describe.) 

3.  Broken  knee;  bent  backward  from  injury. 

4.  Buck  knee;  bent  forward  from  stiffening  of  tendons. 

5.  Capped  knee;  (what  is  meant?) 

6.  Greased  heel;  sores  which  refuse  to  heal. 


HORSES  307 

7.  Scratches;  sores  under  fetlocks  from  filth  or  dampness. 

8.  Windgalls;  puffs  around  fetlock  joint  from  hard  driving 

or  standing  on  hard  floors. 

9.  Cocked  ankles;  ankles  bent  forward  from  misuse. 

10.  Navicular  disease;  contracted  foot,  favored  in  action. 

11.  Toe  cracks;  transverse  checks  across  the  hoof. 

12.  Quarter  racks;  split  in  hoof  extending  up  to  heeU 

13.  Corns;  (what?  where?)  (describe  cause.) 

14.  Thrush. 

15.  Knocked-down  hip;  one  hip  lower  than  the  other  from 

blow. 

16.  Spavin;  either  bog,  or  bone,  indicating  sprain  or  injury. 

17.  Thorough-pin;  (describe  cause.) 

18.  Curb;  enlargement  at  back  of  hock  from  sprain. 
General  defects — 

1.  St.  Vitus's  Dance;  twitching  of  muscles. 

2.  Crampness;  tendency  for  muscles  to  cramp. 

3.  Stringhalt;  one  or  both  hind  feet  lifted  too  high. 

4.  Roaring;  a  wheezing,  roaring  sound  in  breathing;  from 

bad  wind. 

5.  Heaves;  spasmodic  breathing. 
Vices — 

1.  Cribbing;  habit  of  biting  mangers,  posts,  etc.,  caused  by 

teeth  trouble. 

2.  Windsucking;  habit  of  biting,  and  at  the  same  time  suck- 

ing in  air. 

3.  Halter  pulling;  habit  of  pulling  back  when  tied. 

4.  Biting;  vicious  tendency  to  bite  people  or  other  horses. 

5.  Balking;  refusing  to  move  when  commanded. 

'     6.     Rolling  in  stall;  likely  to  become  "cast"  and  cause  in- 
jury. 

7.  Kicking;  showing  vicious  temper. 

8.  Striking;  with  front  feet  to  injure  attendant. 

6.    The  Care  of  Horses 

The  horse  is  the  most  intelligent  and  companionable  of 
the  farm  animals.  It  quickly  shows  the  effects  of  ill  treat- 
ment or  lack  of  care  and,  on  the  other  hand,  easily  responds 
to  training  and  good  usage. 


308  AGRICULTURE 

Unsoundness  due  to  ill  usuage. — Not  a  few  of  the 
defects  common  to  horses  should  be  blamed  to  their  own- 
ers or  users.  For  example,  poll  evil  is  frequently  caused  by 
striking  the  head  against  a  door  or  stall  beam  that  is  too 
low.  Bit  sores  indicate  either  a  careless  or  a  cruel  driver,  or  a 
bit  unsuited  to  the  horse  on  which  it  is  used.  Neck  and 
shoulder  sores  seldom  occur  if  the  collar  is  a  good  fit,  and  if 
kept  clean.  Fistula  on  withers  on  shoulders  comes  from 
collar  bruises.  Sweeny  is  the  result  of  a  wrench  or  strain, 
often  due  to  ill-fitting  collars. 

In  similar  way,  splints,  spavins,  curbs,  thorough-pins  and 
other  injuries  to  the  legs  are  often  caused  by  excessive  driv- 
ing or  pulling,  especially  of  young  horses.  Misshapen  knees 
and  ankles  are  an  evidence  of  hard  usage.  Greased  heel, 
thrush  and  scratches  come  from  damp  and  filthy  stalls. 
Roaring  is  the  result  of  driving  until  the  wind  is  "broken" ; 
heaves  usually  come  from  eating  dusty  feed;  cribbing  is  a 
sign  of  the  neglect  of  teeth  that  need  attention. 

The  effect  of  training. — The  vices  which  reduce  the 
value  of  many  horses  and  make  them  unpleasant  to  handle 
are  usually  due  fully  as  much  to  training  as  disposition. 
Halter  pulling  commonly  begins  in  the  colt  being  frightened 
and  made  to  break  loose  when  tied,  or  else  being  tied  with 
an  old  and  easily  broken  halter  that  encourages  pulling  on 
it.  Balking  often  indicates  lack  of  intelligence  and  patience 
on  the  part  of  the  trainer  fully  as  much  as  stubbornness  on 
the  part  of  the  horse.  Biting  may  be  started  by  teas- 
ing; and  kicking  often  has  its  beginning  in  fright  from 
something  loose  about  the  harness  or  vehicle  before  the  colt 
is  well  broken. 

Treatment  of  horses. — The  horse  should  be  treated 
with  kindness  and  firmness.  The  driver  who  strikes  or 
jerks  because  of  his  anger  or  petulance  deserves  the  con- 


HORSES 


309 


tempt  of  all  lovers  of  animal  life,  and  should  not  be  en- 
trusted with  horses.  One  who  will  work  a  team  in  the 
heat  and  dust  and  then  allow  them  to  stand  over  night  with- 
out cleaning  shows  either  lack  of  intelligence  about  horses  or 
cruelty.  To  drive  a  team  until  they  are  sweaty  and  then 
allow  them  to  stand  in  a  cold  wind  unblanketed  reveals  not 
only  heartlessness  but  bad  business  management. 

The  horse  can  not  be  taught  like  a  person.     Therefore, 


A  horse  market,  showing  a  tn^e  of  horse  for  which  there  is  a 
good  demand. 


only  one  single  word  of  command  should  ever  be  used  for 
the  same  act.  Whoa  should  always  mean  an  immediate  and 
dead  stop;  back  should  mean  to  step  backward,  and  not 
merely  to  stop.  Some  one  signal  alone  should  be  used  to 
start,  and  the  horse  never  allowed  to  start  without  this  sig- 
nal. Care  in  such  simple  points  as  these  would  result  in 
much  better  broken  and  safer  horses. 


310  •   AGRICULTURE 

^'  7.    Feeding  Horses 

The  feeding  of  farm  work  horses  is  a  different  prob- 
lem from  the  feeding  of  most  other  farm  stock.  This  is 
because  the  horse  is  fed  for  work,  while  other  animals  are 
fed  for  meat,  milk,  eggs  and  so  on. 

The  ration  for  horses. — The  ordinary  farm  ration  for 
working  horses  is  some  form  of  hay  for  roughage,  and 
one  or  more  cereals,  such  as  oats  or  com.  The  particular 
kind  of  hay  fed  is  not  important,  so  that  it  is  in  good  con- 
dition and  free  from  dust.  If  dusty  hay  must  be  used,  it 
should  be  sprinkled  with  water  as  it  is  fed.  Horses  seem 
to  find  timothy  hay  more  palatable  than  most  other  kinds, 
but  red  clover,  alfalfa,  meadow  fescue  and  other  meadow 
grasses  have  been  found  satisfactory.  It  is  thought  that  less 
grain  is  necessary  to  keep  up  the  weight  of  horses  at  hard 
work  when  alfalfa  is  fed  instead  of  some  other  hay. 

Grain  ration  for  farm  horses. — Oats  are  the  choice  of 
the  cereals  for  horses  wherever  they  are  obtainable.  They 
are  rdished  better  than  most  grains,  and  seem  especially 
suited  to  the  horse  as  a  nutrient.  Horses  fed  on  oats  also 
seem  to  show  better  mettle  than  those  fed  on  other  grains. 

In  the  corn  producing  region  corn  is  usually  a  more 
•economical  feed  for  horses  than  oats,  and  has  therefore 
•come  into  quite  general  use  as  a  part  of  the  ration.  Com 
and  alfalfa  hay  make  a  satisfactory  ration,  at  least  for  a 
Himited  time,  and  are  cheaper  than  oats  and  timothy  hay. 
A  very  satisfactory  and  rather  heavy  daily  ration  for  a 
horse  weighing  from  one  thousand  two  hundred  to  one 
thousand  three  hundred  pounds,  and  employed  at  general 
farm  labor  is: 

7%  pounds  of  whole  corn. 
7%  pounds  of  whole  oats. 
1       pound     of  oil  meal. 
3      pounds  of  wheat  hran. 


'     ,  HORSES  311 

7%  pounds  of  timothy  hay. 
7%  pounds  of  clover  hay. 

Other  rations  that  have  been  proved  satisfactory  by  ex- 
periment are  as  follows : 

1.  Corn,  6  pounds;  gluten  feed,  6  pounds;  bran,  2  pounds; 

timothy  hay,  10  pounds. 

2.  Corn,  8  pounds;  bran,  7  pounds;  timothy  hay,  10  pounds. 

3.  Oats,  6  pounds;  corn,  4  pounds;  bran,  2  pounds;  hay,  12 

pounds. 

These  rations  are  the  amount  that  should  be  fed  daily 
to  a  horse  weighing  from  one  thousand  two  hundred  to  one 
thousand  three  hundred  pounds  when  at  work.  Larger 
horses  should  receive  more,  and  smaller  horses  less,  accord- 
ing to  weight.  It  is  also  to  be  noted  that  some  horses  re- 
quire more  feed  than  others  of  the  same  weight.  . 

How  to  feed. — For  horses  with  good  teeth  it  is  not  /  ^^ 
€ssential  whether  the  grain  is  ground  or  fed  whole,  except 
that  the  same  amount  will  yield  somewhat  more  nourish- 
ment if  ground.  This  difference  may  sometimes  be  as  much 
as  one  per  cent,  in  favor  of  ground  feed.  On  days  when 
work  horses  are  allowed  to  stand  idle  the  amount  of  grain 
should  be  reduced  about  one-half.  If  the  idleness  contin- 
ues beyond  three  or  four  days,  the  amount  of  grain  may 
gradually  be  increased,  but  should  not  reach  the  full  work 
ration. 

Most  of  the  hay  should  be  fed  at  night  and  in  the  morn- 
ing, as  there  is  not  time  at  noon  to  secure  the  necessary 
nourishment  from  roughage.  The  noon  feed  of  grain  may 
be  slightly  heavier  than  that  for  night  or  morning.  About 
twice  as  long  is  required  for  horses  to  eat  ground  grain 
fed  dry  as  when  it  is  dampened. 

Watering  horses. — Much  prejudice  exists  concerning 
the  best  time  for  watering  horses,  some  preferring  to  water 
before  feeding,  and  others  after.    Careful  experiments  have 


312  AGRICULTURE 

^own  that  the  time  of  watering  is  not  highly  important. 
If  horses  come  from  the  field  thirsty,  it  is  reasonable  to 
suppose  that  they  will  reUsh  their  meal  better  if  they  have 
had  a  drink.  If  the  feed  consists  largely  of  dry  roughage 
it  also  seems  best  to  water  before  feeding.  Whatever  sys- 
tem is  adopted  should  be  followed  regularly,  as  changing 
about  often  injures  the  appetite  or  produces  some  other  de- 
rangement. Horses  should  never  be  given  a  large  amount 
of  water  when  highly  heated  from  working  or  driving. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  What  breeds  of  horses  are  favored  in  your  region? 
Let  each  student  find  out  just  what  breeds  are  represented 
in  the  horses  on  his  home  farm,  with  the  percentage  of 
pure-bred  blood  in  each  animal.  Sum  up  the  results  for  the 
entire  district. 

2.  If  it  costs  fifteen  dollars  more  to  sire  from  pure-bred 
than  grade  horses,  what  would  be  the  net  gain  by  using 
pure-bred  rather  than  grade  sires  in  raising  for  market  two 
teams  and  selling  them  at  four  years  of  age  on  the  basis 
shown  in  the  table  on  page  302  ? 

3.  After  studying  the  score-card  for  judging  draft 
horses  and  judging  one  or  more  animals  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  teacher,  judge  independently  at  least  two  other 
horses,  having  your  work  tested  and  criticized  by  the 
teacher  or  other  competent  judge. 

4.  Master  thoroughly  the  list  of  defects  common  to 
horses,  and  then  watch  for  an  example  of  each  on  dif- 
ferent animals  until  you  have  learned  to  identify  any  un- 
soundness at  sight.  Examine  carefully  each  horse  at  your 
home  for  unsoundness. 

5.  Write  a  detailed  account  of  the  care  that  should  be 
given  a  working  team  each  day,  including  stall,  feeding, 
watering,  cleaning,  blanketing,  and  so  on. 

6.  Weigh  the  ordinary  daily  ration  fed  one  of  your 
working  horses  and  compare  with  the  rations  suggested  in 


HORSES  313 

the  chapter.    At  current  prices,  just  what  does  it  cost  a  day 
to  feed  one  of  your  work  horses  ? 

7 .  Show  how  to  keep  a  bookkeeping  record  of  the 
cost  of  keeping,  feeding,  and  use  of  a  team  of  heavy  draft 
horses  for  farm  purposes,  covering  a  period  of  six  months 
through  the  working  season. 

8.  Show  upon  the  map  of  the  United  States  the  ap- 
proximate number  of  horses  in  each  state.  Secure  records 
from  the  last  census  report  on  horses.  Where  were  the 
wild  horses  originally  found  ?  Where  are  horses  now  raised 
on  ranges? 

8.    Demonstrations  With  the  Horse 

1.  Demonstrate  how  to  halter-break  a  colt. 

2.  The  proper  method  of  judging  a  horse. 

3.  Show  how  to  handle  a  buggy  horse;  harness,  hitch 
and  start. 

4.  Demonstrate  the  proper  method  of  mounting  a  sad- 
dle horse,  with  or  without  the  saddle.  » 

5.  The  proper  method  of  currying  a  horse,  training  the 
mane,  and  tying  up  the  tail  for  muddy  r6ads. 

6.  Demonstrate  miscellaneous  interests  in  horseman- 
ship. In  this  particular  case  contestants  may  be  allowed 
to  bring  their  own  horses  and  demonstrate  values  and  tricks 
such  as  prompt  obedience  to  master's  command,  and  pe- 
culiar and  valuable  traits  of  their  animals. 

7.  Demonstrate  the  practical  rope  knots  and  splicings 
of  especial  value  in  the  handling  of  horses,  such  as  the  hal- 
ter-hitch, clove-hitch,  slipknot  and  timber-hitch, 

8.  Demonstrate  how  to  harness  and  hitch  a  team  to  a 
double  wagon. 

All  of  the  above  demonstrations  should  not  only  show 
skill,  accuracy  and  speed,  but  kindness  in  the  handling  of 
the  animals. 


314  AGRICULTURE 


f 


9.     The  Horse  Play  Contests 


1.  Horse  mounting  contest,  judged  by  skill,  largest 
number  of  mountings  in  five  minutes  and  showing  of  kind- 
ness to  animal  in  mounting. 

2.  Horse  judging  contest,  driving  contest  in  single, 
double,  or  four-horse  team. 

3.  Oral  story,  giving  the  life  history  of  the  horse. 

4.  Essay  writing  contest  on  the  subject:  "The  Horse 
and  Its  Relation  to  Agriculture." 

5.  Recipe  and  remedy  giving  contest,  showing  the 
proper  methods  of  treatment  for  unsoundness,  defects,  blem- 
ishes and  vices  of  the  horse. 

6.  Description  and  recognition  of  defects  and  blemishes 
with  causes. 

10.     Colt  Club  Project 

The  object  of  organizing  a  colt  chib  is  to  get  boys  and 
girls  interested  in  the  raising  and  proper  management  of 
colts  as  an  economic  factor  on  the  farm.  The  work  should 
cover  a  period  of  not  less  than  twelve  months  in  the  man- 
agement, feeding  and  keeping  of  records  of  a  colt.  The 
basis  of  award  should  be  as  follows : 

1.  Management  shown  by  training  of  colt 25 

2.  The  cost  of  keeping 25 

3.  Condition  of  the  colt  or  horse 25 

4.  Story  of  "My  Year's  Work  with  the  Colt" 25 

Total  score 100 


CHAPTER  XXI 
SWINE 

HOGS  outrank  every  other  farm  animal  in  number  in  the 
United  States,  and  are  exceeded  in  value  only  by 
horses  and  cattle.  There  are  more  than  sixty  million  hogs 
on  our  farms,  or  nearly  two  porkers  for  every  three  of  the 
population.  The  aggregate  market  value  of  swine  is  about 
two-thirds  that  of  dairy  cattle,  and  not  far  from  equal  to 
the  value  of  beef  cattle.  American  farmers  own  more  than 
six  hundred  million  dollars'  worth  of  hogs. 

1.    The  Pork  Producing  r.egion 

A  large  proportion  of  our  hogs  is  produced  in  the 
states  forming  the  corn  belt.  This  is  natural,  since  corn 
is  one  of  the  cheapest  and  best  grains  for  raising  pork. 
Many  other  regions  can  grow  hogs  as  successfully  as  the 
corn  states,  however,  and  the  industry  is  spreading. 

Hogs  in  the  South. — Southern  farmers  have  not  yet 
entered  very  largely  upon  the  raising  of  hogs,  though  they 
can  probably  be  produced  fully  as  cheaply  in  the  South  as 
the  North.  The  southern  people  consume  more  meat  per 
capita  than  the  people  of  any  other  section.  Millions  of 
pounds  of  fresh  meats  are  annually  shipped  to  southern 
markets  from  northern  and  western  farms.  This  means  a 
double  loss  to  the  South,  hence  the  importance  of  a  more 
general  study  of  the  swine  industry.  For  money  is  paid 
oui  for  what  could  well  be  raised  at  home,  and  a  most  prof- 
itable industry  is  thus  omitted  from  the  farms. 

315 


316  AGRICULTURE 

♦*  The  leading  states  in  hog  production. — Sixty  per  cent, 
of  all  our  pork  is  raised  in  ten  states.  In  the  order  of  their 
importance  in  pork  production  these  states  are:  Iowa,  Illi- 
nois, Missouri, ,  Nebraska,  Indiana,  Ohio,  Kansas,  Texas, 
Wisconsin,  Georgia.  The  percentage  each  of  these  supplies 
of  all  hogs  produced  in  the  United  States  is  shown  in  the 
following  chart: 

Iowa  13.4% 

Illinois  7.5% 

Missouri  6.7% 

Nebraska  ■. —    6.2% 

Indiana  6.1% 

Ohio  5.2% 

Kansas  4.3% 

Texas  4.1%       - 

Wisconsin  3.3% 

Georgia  3.1% 

The  number  of  swine  in  these  states  runs  from  about 
two  million  in  Georgia  to  nine  million  in  Iowa. 

2.     Breeds  of  Hogs 

Many  of  our  important  breeds  of  cattle  and  horses  orig- 
inated in  Europe,  but  we  have  ourselves  developed  nearly 
all  our  chief  breeds  of  hogs.  The  breeds  most  favored  in 
the  United  States  are  Poland-China,  Duroc-Jersey,  Ches- 
ter-White and  Berkshire.  The  Berkshire,  the  only  imported 
breed,  came  from  England.  Other  less  well-known  breeds 
are  the  Yorkshire,  Cheshire,  Suffolk,  Hampshire  and  Essex. 

Poland-China. — Poland-China  has  long  been  a  favorite 
breed  of  hogs,  especially  in  the  corn  states.  They  are  black 
in  color,  with  irregular  white  markings  on  almost  every 
part  of  the  body.  The  ears  are  drooping.  The  Poland- 
Chinas  make  a  rapid  growth,  and  reach  good  size.  They 
are  rather  small  of  bone,  and  not  so  good  foragers  as  some 


SWINE 


317 


other  breeds.     Some  fault  has  been  found  with  them  for 
not  producing  larger  litters. 

Duroc-Jersey. — The  Duroc-Jerseys  are  easily  recog- 
nized by  their  reddish  color.  They  are  one  of  the  most 
prolific  and  vigorous  breeds,  somewhat  slow  in  develop- 
ing,  and   strong  of   frame.     Their  bones   are   large,   and 


A  flue  Duroc-Jersey  sow. 


they  reach  good  size  and  weight.  They  have  large  droop- 
ing ears,  are  good  foragers,  and  thrive  well  on  pasturage, 
or  when  following  a  herd  of  fattening  cattle. 

Chester-White. — The  Chester-White  breed  are  of 
large  frame,  rather  slow  in  maturing,  and  possess  good 
•constitutions.  They  are  white  without  markings,  and  have 
drooping  ears.  They  are  raised  more  in  New  England  than 
in  the  corn  re^jion. 


A  Chester-White  sow  in  show  condition. 


A  Berkshire. 


SWINE  ,  319 

Berkshire. — Berkshires  resemble  the  Poland-China 
breed  in  color  and  markings,  being  black  with  white  mark- 
ings. They  may  be  distinguished  by  their  erect  ears.  They 
have  a  compact  frame,  are  good  feeders,  and  make  a  quicker 
growth  than  most  other  breeds.  The  Berkshire  has  long 
been  a  favorite  breed,  especially  throughout  the  Middle 
West. 

3.    The  Care  of  Hogs 

Pigs  are  not  so  cleanly  in  their  habits  as  some  other 
farm  animals.  This  seems  to  make  many  farmers  think  that 
it  does  not  matter  how  they  are  kept.  Nothing  could  be  a 
greater  mistake.  Hogs  thrive  only  under  hygienic  condi- 
tions of  feeding  and  housing.  Millions  of  dollars  are  thrown 
away  every  year  by  failure  to  give  hogs  the  care  they  re- 
quire. 

Need  of  good  housing. — Hogs  are  the  most  poorly 
housed  of  any  farm  animal.  Any  kind  of  place  is  thought 
good  enough  for  them  on  many  farms.  Yet  hogs  are  far 
more  sensitive  to  cold  than  horses  or  cattle,  which  have 
thick  coats  to  protect  them,  while  the  hog  has  almost  none. 
Hogs  lie  down  more  than  most  animals,  and  need  a  better 
bed.  They  live  close  to  the  ground,  and  easily  breathe  in 
dust  and  impurities.  They  need  sunshine  more  than  do 
horses  and  cattle,  yet  little  is  provided  for  them. 

Hogs  take  cold  very  easily.  Little  pigs,  especially,  need 
to  be  kept  warm,  dry  and  away  from  drafts,  if  they  are  not 
to  have  their  growth  checked,  or  even  lose  their  lives  by 
catching  cold.  Neglect  of  these  simple  rules  indicates  shift- 
less farming,  and  causes  great  loss. 

Hog-houses. — Every  farm  that  makes  a  business  of 
raising  pigs  will  find  a  well-built  hog-house  a  paying  invest- 
ment. The  most  economical  and  convenient  hog-house  has 
a  row  of  pens  along  each  side  of  a  central  alley  which,  in 

22 


320 


AGRICULTURE 


larger  buildings,  should  be  wide  enough  to  drive  through. 
This  allows  the  hauling  in  of  straw  for  bedding,  and  corn 
or  slops  for  feeding,  thereby  saving  much  labor.  It  also 
provides  for  the  easy  removing  of  manure. 

The  separate  pens  should  be  from  five  to  eight  feet  wide, 
and  from  eight  to  twelve  feet  long,  depending  on  the  use  to 
be  made  of  them.    Pens  for  brood  sows  need  not  be  larger 


•  An  excellent  type  of  hog-house  with  outdoor  pens. 

than  five  or  six  by  eight  feet.  If  feeding  is  to  be  done  in  the 
pens  they  should  be  larger,  or,  better  still,  the  partitions 
should  be  removable.  The  floor  may  be  of  cement,  though 
for  farrowing  sows  a  temporary  board  floor  should  be  laid 
over  the  cement,  because  of  the  coldness  of  a  cement  floor. 
Woven  wire  stretched  over  the  top  of  the  ground  to  pre- 
vent rooting  is  sometimes  used  as  a  floor.  Such  a  floor  is 
likely  to  be  either  dusty  or  wet,  however.  Board  floors  are 
expensive  and  drafty  if  above  the  ground.    They  also  har- 


SWINE 


321 


bor  rats,  which  not  infrequently  kill  young  pigs.  A  dou- 
ble trough  may  supply  each  pair  of  pens.  Young  pigs 
should  have  their  own  troughs  outside  the  main  pens. 


: !  f  i'":^ ', ' "  ^^iL^^«i;iW:^5« 


RACK   FOR  FEEDING   HAY  TO  HOGS 


Lighting  and  ventilating  hog-houses. — It  is  not  un- 
common to  find  hog-houses  that  cost  several  thousand  dol- 
lars built  almost  without  windows  or  other  means  of  admit- 
ting light,  air  and  sunshine.  Other  houses  are  built  with 
windows  in  unfavorable  positions,  so  that  the  sunlight  can 


322  AGRICULTURE 

^not  fall  on  the  floor  of  the  pens  where  it  is  needed  by  the 
pigs. 

The  hog-house  should  run  east  and  west,  so  that  it  may 
have  one  full  side  exposed  to  the  sun.  This  arrangement 
will  necessitate  having  one  row  of  pens  along  the  north  side. 
In  order  to  get  sunlight  into  the  north  pens,  the  "broken 
roof"  style  of  building  is  used.  Care  must  be  taken  to  place 
both  upper  and  lower  windows  at  such  a  height  that  the 
sunlight  will  reach  the  floor  during  the  winter  and  early 
spring  months,  or  during-  the  farrowing  season. 

To  do  this,  the  angle  of  the  sun,  say  in  February  and 
March,  and  the  width  of  the  building  must  be  carefully  com- 
puted. At  the  latitude  of  southern  Iowa,  or  central  Illinois, 
Indiana,  Ohio  and  Nebraska,  the  tops  of  the  upper  win- 
dows of  a  hog-house  twenty  feet  wide  should  be  ten  and 
one-half  feet  from  the  ground.  If  the  north  pens  are  eight 
feet  long,  and  the  alley  is  four  feet  wide,  the  sunshine  will 
just  reach  the  back  line  of  the  pens  at  ten  o'clock  and  at  two 
o'clock  on  the  first  of  March.  Care  to  such  details  will  save 
the  lives  of  many  young  pigs  farrowed  in  the  early  spring. 

Individual  hog  cots. — Many  hog  raisers  are  now  pro- 
viding two  types  of  hog-houses,  the  large  permanent  house 
for  farrowing  purposes,  and  the  small  individual  cot  for 
the  sows  and  their  litters  as  soon  as  the  latter  are  old  enough 
to  be  put  out-of-doors.  The  individual  cots  may  be  scattered 
about  the  lot  or  pasture,  and  moved  as  often  as  necessary 
to  keep  the  quarters  clean.  For  winter  service  the  cots 
can  be  collected  side  by  side  in  a  sheltered  place,  banked 
and  used  for  sleeping  quarters. 

The  feeding  floor. — The  use  of  a  sanitary  feeding 
floor  should  be  much  more  common  than  it  is.  It  is  a 
great  waste  of  grain  to  scatter  it  in  the  mud  or  dust  of  a 
dirt  yard.  This  mode  of  feeding  is  also  injurious  to  the 
health  of  the  pigs,  for  it  compels  them  to  breathe  in  a  great 


SWINE  323 

amount  of  dust  and  to  eat  impurities  in  order  to  get  the 
grain.  The  effect  is  seen  in  such  diseases  as  "thumps"  and 
"wheezes,"  and  in  the  greater  liabiHty  to  colds,  tuberculosis 
and  other  troubles. 

The  best  feeding  floor  is  made  of  concrete,  slightly  raised 
above  the  level  of  the  ground,  if  made  outside  the  hog-house, 


Individual  hog  cot,  on  runners,  so  that  it  can  be  drawn  from 
place  to  place. 

and  sloping  slightly  so  that  it  can  easily  be  washed  off. 
Such  a  floor  is  not  expensive,  and  will  pay  for  itself  many 
times  over  in  the  feeding  of  hogs. 

4.    Feeding  Hogs 

Hogs  are  probably  the  best  money  makers  on  the  farm, 
if  properly  handled.  The  same  amount  of  feed  will  produce 
a  greater  value  of  pork  than  any  other  meat.  The  returns 
also  come  in  sooner  than  with  most  other  farm  animals. 


324  AGRICULTURE 

f  ■  .  . 

Money  invested  in  hogs  can  be  turned  rapidly,  as  pigs  are 

marketable  when  eight  months  old.  The  yearly  sales  from 
a  herd  of  hogs  should  be  from  two  to  four  times  the  orig- 
inal investment.  Much  of  the  profit  depends  on  intelli- 
gent feeding. 

The  feeding  of  pigs  requires  the  consideration  of  three 
stages  in  their  development,  (1)  from  farrowing  to  wean- 
ing, (2)  from  weaning  to  fattening,  and  (3)  fattening  for 
market. 

Feeding  young  pigs. — Little  pigs  do  not  need  any 
food  other  than  their  mother's  milk  for  the  first  two  or 
three  weeks  of  their  life.  When  they  have  reached  this  age, 
they  will  begin  to  nibble  on  shelled  corn.  A  little  of  this 
should  be  fed  them  in  a  place  outside  the  pen.  By  the  time 
they  are  from  three  to  four  weeks  old,  they  may  be  fed 
a  small  amount  of  skim-milk,  in  which  has  been  mixed  a 
little  ground  feed,  such  as  shorts.  They  should  have  a 
trough  of  their  own  where  it  can  not  be  reached  by  the 
mother. 

The  amount  of  mixed  feeds  and  shelled  com  given  small 
pigs  may  be  increased  till  they  are  ten  weeks  old,  when  they 
should  be  weaned.  When  they  are  deprived  of  their  moth- 
er's milk,  which  up  to  weaning  time  supplies  the  basis  of 
their  nourishment,  it  is  very  important  that  they  be  fed  a 
ration  capable  of  producing  the  most  rapid  growth  and 
best  health. 

Feeding  pigs  after  weaning. — At  the  time  of  weaning, 
the  feed  should  not  be  greatly  changed,  except  to  increase 
the  amount,  until  the  pigs  have  become  accustomed  to  the 
loss  of  the  mother's  milk.  If  pasture  is  available,  the  quan- 
tity of  corn  may  be  increased.  If  the  pigs  must  be  kept 
in  a  dry  lot,  a  larger  proportion  of  soft  feeds  should  be 
used. 

It  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  purpose  in  feeding  pigs 


SWINE 


325 


from  the  age  of  two  months  up  to  the  age  of  six  or  seven 
months  is  not  to  fatten  them,  but  to  cause  them  to  ghow 
large  frames  and  develop  good  constitutions.  If  they  are 
fattened  too  early,  it  stops  their  growth,  and  reduces  their 
vitality,  thereby  making  it  unprofitable  to  continue  feeding 
them  up  to  full  maturity. 


J 


A  good  type  of  feeding  pen  for  small  pigs. 


Pasturage  for  growing  pigs. — Growing  hogs,  there- 
fore, require  muscle  and  bone  making  food,  instead  of  a 
ration  that  will  fatten  them.  They  need  exercise  to  pro- 
mote their  growth,  and  give  them  strong  vigorous  frames 
for  the  taking  on  of   fat.     For  these  reasons,  pasturage 


326 


AGRICULTURE 


should  supply  the  basis  of  the  young  hog's  ration.  Clover, 
alfalfa,  peas,  rape,  vetch  and  other  succulent  plants  are  the 
cheapest  and  best  feeds  for  the  period  between  weaning  and 
fattening  time. 

To  this  green  feed  will  need  to  be  added  a  certain  pro- 
portion of  corn,  or  other  grain,  in  order  to  make  a  balanced 


SAME   -LITTER 


mu 


185 


SORN 
^\LONE 


r\\ 


CORN 


(^< 


ALFALFA 
HAY 


ration.  But  the  poorest  and  most  expensive  way  to  grow 
pigs  is  to  shut  them  in  a  dry  lot  and  feed  them  a  ration  of 
corn  alone,  as  is  so  often  done.  The  farm  lacking  in  well 
arranged  hog  pastures  is  not  ready  for  the  business  of  mak- 
ing money  out  of  pork. 

Balanced  rations  for  young  hogs. — No  matter  what 
other  ration  may  be  fed  pigs,  milk  is  always  desirable.  For 
milk  is  highly  palatable  to  hogs,  and  it  contains  more  of 


SWINE  327 

the  necessary  food  elements  than  any  other  food.  The  fol- 
lowing are  suggested  as  rations  suitable  for  growing  hogs 
that  have,  in  addition,  access  to  good  pasturage : 

1.  Corn,  60%;  shorts,  30%;  tankage,  10%^;  or 

2.  Corn,     one-third;     wheat,     one-third;     oats,     one-third, 

ground;  or 

3.  Corn,  one-half;  shorts,  one-half;  or 

4.  Corn,  60%;  shorts,  20%;  linseed-oil  meal,  20%;  or 

5.  Corn,  one-third;  milk,  two-thirds. 

It  has  been  shown  by  careful  tests  that  if  pigs  must  be 
fed  in  dry  lots,  ration  one,  consisting  of  corn  sixty  per  cent., 
shorts  thirty  per  cent,  and  tankage  ten  per  cent.,  will  produce 
double  the  gain  that  can  be  secured  from  corn  alone. 

Fattening  hogs. — Pigs  should  be  ready  for  fatten- 
ing by  the.  time  they  are  from  six  to  six  and  one-half  months 
old.  When  fattening  begins,  the  ration  should  have  a  much 
larger  proportion  of  corn.  In  fact,  hogs  may  be  profitably 
fattened  on  corn  alone,  through  the  addition  of  milk  to  the 
ration  pays. 

While  being  fed  for  fattening,  the  hog  does  not  require 
the  amount  of  exercise  needed  during  the  growing  period. 
It  is  not  best,  however,  to  shut  feeders  up  in  a  close  pen, 
for  a  certain  amount  of  exercise  is  necessary  to  keep  the 
hog  in  a  healthy  condition  and  good  appetite. 

Snapped  corn  is  preferable  to  husked  ears  on  account  of 
the  greater  amount  of  work  demanded  of  the  hog,  and  the 
slower  eating  required.  Where  the  fields  can  be  properly 
fenced  off,  the  best  of  all  ways  to  feed  corn  to  hogs  is  to 
allow  them  to  do  their  own  harvesting.  This  method  of 
feeding,  called  "hogging  down"  corn,  gives  the  hogs  about 
the  right  amount  of  exercise,  allows  them  to  eat  whenever 
they  desire,  and  saves  the  farmer  the  labor  of  husking, 
hauling  and  feeding.  The  same  amount  of  corn  will  also 
produce  more  pork. 


328 


AGRICULTURE 


5.    Diseases  Affecting  Hogs 

Young  pigs  are  not  particularly  liable  to  any  one  dis- 
ease, but  easily  fall  prey  to  troubles  arising  from  improper 
care.  Cold,  wet,  dirty  pens  cause  the  death  of  many  new- 
farrowed  pigs.  Dusty  floors,  filthy  mud-holes  and  un- 
cleaned  troughs  are  always  harmful.  Exposure  to  extreme 
cold  or  to  burning  heat  is  sure  to  tell  in  loss  of  health  or 
weight.     It  is  safe  to  say  that  half  the  troubles  attacking 


A  nizor-back  jind  a  pure-breil.  The  liirge  one  was  owned  and 
raised  by  the  club  boy,  reooiving  jrood  care  and  a  balanced  ration. 
The  razor-back,  owned  by  the  father,  had  no  management,  a  nar- 
row ration,  produced  pork  slowly  and  unprofitably. 

the  younger  pigs,  at  least,  could  be  saved  by  providing  them 
with  more  sanitary  surroundings. 

Thumps. — This  is  a  disease  that  manifests  itself  in  a 
spasmodic  manner  of  breathing,  which  suggests  the  name. 
It  is  usually  a  digestive  trouble  caused  by  over-feeding 
and  lack  of  exercise.  Certain  worms  may  also  cause 
thumps.    The  best  preventative  for  thumps,  especially  with 


SWINE  329 

young  hogs,  is  plenty  of  pasture  with  green  feed.  The 
treatment  for  thumps  is  to  reduce  the  amount  of  feed,  give 
a  laxative,  and  make  sure  that  the  pigs  get  exercise. 

Scours. — Scours,  or  too  great  laxness  in  the  digestive 
tract,  are  caused  in  young  pigs  by  overfeeding,  a  feverish 
condition  of  the  mother  sow,  soured  feeds,  dirty  troughs, 
or  some  other  insanitary  condition  connected  with  their 
feeding.  The  first  step  in  applying  a  remedy  is  to  find 
and  remove  the  cause.  If  the  trouble  continues,  each  pig 
may  be  given  a  few  drops  of  laudanum. 

Worms. — Worms  are  a  source  of  great  trouble  in 
raising  pigs.  Through  rooting  in  the  dirt,  and  being  fed 
on  dirt  floors,  young  pigs  pick  up  certain  kinds  of  worms 
which  continue  to  live  in  their  digestive  organs.  Pigs 
never  thrive  when  afflicted  with  worms.  The  coat  shows 
rough,  growth  is  hindered,  the  general  health  affected,  and 
a  large  proportion  of  the  feed  wasted.  A  simple  remedy 
is  to  give  one  teaspoonful  of  turpentine  to  sixty  or  eighty 
pounds  of  hog,  and  repeat  the  dose  in  three  days.  Another 
remedy  is  five  grains  of  santonin  combined  with  three  grains 
of  calomel  for  each  sixty  or  eighty  pounds  of  hog.  This 
should  be  followed  by  an  effective  physic.  Whatever  the 
remedy  employed,  the  pigs  should  be  starved  for  twelve 
hours  before  being  dosed. 

Lice. — Many  hogs  are  lousy.  The  lice  can  easily  be 
detected  by  looking  between  the  legs  or  behind  the  ears. 
Hogs  suffering  with  lice  will  make  a  slower  growth  and 
fatten  less  easily  than  clean  hogs.  So  important  is  this 
matter  that  many  hog  raisers  provide  as  a  part  of  their 
equipment  a  dipping  tank,  in  which  some  form  of  crude 
oil  or  coal  tar  is  used  as  a  bath.  Where  the  dipping  tank 
is  not  available,  or  in  the  case  of  young  pigs,  the  remedy 
should  be  sprayed  or  rubbed  on. 

Tuberculosis. — Hogs,  like  various  other  animals,  are 


330 


AGRICULTURE 


suWect  to  tuberculosis.  Many  hogs  have  this  disease  in 
soiHe  form.  Its  effects  are  seen  in  a  stoppage  of  growth, 
a  general  run-down  appearance,  loss  of  appetite,  and  in 
some  cases,  death.  Because  hogs  are  kept  so  short  a  time, 
and  tuberculosis  is  so  slow  a  disease,  there  is  comparatively 


Parts  of  a  hog 

A.  Snout 

K.  Back 

S.  Hock 

B.  Eye 

L.  Loin 

T.  Hind  leg 

C.  Fflce 

M.  Side 

U.  Fore  flank 

D.  Ear 

N.  Tall 

V.  Foot 

E.  Jowl 

0.  Rump 

W.  Pasterns 

F.  Neck 

P.  Breast 

X.  Dew  claw 

G.  Fore  1 

ee 

Q.  Hind  flank 

Y.  Stifle 

H.  Shoulder 

R.  Haih 

Z.  Belly 

I.  Chest 

line 

little  loss  owing  to  deaths  from  tuberculosis.  But  many 
animals  when  slaughtered  are  found  to  be  unfit  for  food  be- 
cause of  the  disease. 

Tuberculosis  is  caught  either  from  diseased  pigs,  or  from 
drinking  the  milk  of  tubercular  cows.  It  is  probable  that 
most  of  the  tuberculosis  in  swine  comes   from  the  latter 


SWINE  331 

cause.  Many  hog  raisers  now  pasteurize  the  milk  before 
feeding  it  to  the  pigs.  This  is  the  only  sure  preventative 
against  tubercular  milk. 

Hog  cholera. — By  far  the  worse  disease  scourge  af- 
fecting hogs  is  cholera.  It  not  infrequently  wipes  out  en- 
tire herds  within  a  few  weeks.  The  average  yearly  loss 
from  hog  cholera  in  Indiana  is  estimated  at  three  million 
dollars.  In  one  single  "cholera  year"  Iowa  lost  at  least 
twenty  million  dollars  from  this  cause.  Other  states  suffer 
in  like  proportion.  It  is,  therefore,  of  the  highest  import- 
ance that  the  causes  of  cholera,  and  the  modes  of  prevention 
be  well  understood. 

Hog  cholera  is  a  germ  sickness  caught  by  infection 
from  hogs  that  have  the  disease.  It  is  not  necessary  for 
well  animals  to  come  in  direct  contact  with  cholera  hogs 
in  order  to  catch  the  infection.  The  germs  may  be  carried 
by  dogs ;  by  pigeons,  crows,  or  other  birds  that  alight  in 
the  hog  lot  to  pick  up  grain ;  by  men  who  have  tramped 
through  a  lot  where  cholera  hogs  have  been;  by  new  stock 
brought  into  the  herd ;  and  by  streams  that  have  become 
infected.  When  hog  cholera  is  in  the  region,  therefore,  it 
is  necessary  to  observe  every  precaution  to  keep  infection 
away  from  the  herd. 

Effects  of  cholera. — The  disease  is  so  marked  in  its 
symptoms  that  it  is  not  hard  to  distinguish  from  most  other 
hog  sicknesses.  In  hog  cholera,  the  lymphatic  glands,  lungs, 
intestines,  kidneys  and  liver  are  highly  inflamed.  Red 
blotches  appear  on  the  skin.  Appetite  is  lost,  the  gait  be- 
comes staggering,  the  eyes  inflamed.  Not  infrequently 
bleeding  at  the  nose  and  vomiting  occur.  The  temperature 
is  usually  from  one  hundred  and  seven  to  one  hundred  and 
eight  degrees  Fahrenheit.  The  first  ones  of  the  herd  to  be 
stricken  commonly  die  within  a  few  days ;  those  that  take 
the  disease  later  may  live  for  several  weeks,  or  even  recover. 


332 


AGRICULTURE 


r  Treatment. — No  absolute  cure  has  been  discovered 
for  hog  cholera.  Nearly  all  animals  that  take  the  disease 
usually  die.  A  method  of  preventing  well  herds  from 
contracting  cholera  has,  however,  been  discovered.  This 
is  to  give  well  hogs  anti-cholera  serum ;  or,  in  effect, 
vaccinate  them,  as  is  done  with  people  for  smallpox  and 
diphtheria. 

The  hog  cholera  serum  is  secured  by  drawing  blood  from 


I  had  serum.  I  wish  I  had. 

a  hog  which  has  first  been  rendered  immune  to  cholera, 
either  by  having  had  the  disease  or  being  given  a  special 
treatment  for  the  purpose  of  immunizing,  and  then  having 
had  cholera  germs  injected  into  his  veins.  Each  animal  of 
the  herd  to  be  treated  is  given  by  hypodermic  injection  a 
certain  quantity  of  this  serum  in  accordance  with  its  size. 
If  the  treatment  is  successful,  it  will  immunize  the  herd 
against  cholera  for  several  weeks.  When  the  serum  is 
given  to  well  herds,  a  cholera  hog  is  sometimes  brought 
among  them,  or  its  carcass  even  fed  them,  at  the  time  the 
treatment  is  given.  This  method  is  thought  to  make  the 
immunity  more  certain. 


SWINE  333 

Success  of  the  serum  treatment. — ^The  success  of  the 
serum  treatment  is  still  questioned  by  many.  It  seems  rea- 
sonably certain,  however,  that  where  failure  has  followed  its 
use,  it  was  because  the  serum  was  improperly  prepared 
or  not  skilfully  administered.  Various  experiment  stations 
have  found  that  there  is  a  loss  of  only  about  ten  per  cent, 
of  the  hogs  treated  in  herds  already  infected,  and  of  only 
one  or  two  per  cent,  in  well  herds  where  the  serum  treat- 
ment has  been  carefully  used.  The  manufacture  of  serum 
by  the  state,  or  official  inspection  of  its  manufacture  by  pri- 
vate plants,  will  make  its  use  as  a  cholera  preventative  still 
more  effective.  No  one  is  justified  in  failing  to  treat  his 
herd  with  the  serum  when  hog  cholera  threatens. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Make  a  census  of  all  the  hogs  on  your  home  farm, 
classifying  them  into  the  following  groups :  brood  sows, 
suckling  pigs,  young  shoats,  and  fattening  hogs.  Have 
your  father  h^elp  you  estimate  the  value  of  each  group,  and 
compute  the  value  of  all. 

2.  What  different  breeds  are  represented  on  your  farm  ? 
Are  the  breeds  pure  or  mixed? 

3.  At  what  time  of  the  year  are  the  pigs  farrowed  ?  At 
what  age  are  they  weaned?  At  what  age  is  fattening 
started?  Are  your  young  pigs  allowed  the  range  of  a  pas- 
ture? If  so,  what  is  the  grass  used?  What  feed  is  used 
in  addition? 

4.  Is  attention  given  on  your  home  farm  to  •feeding 
hogs  a  balanced  ration?  If  so,  what  are  the  feeds  used? 
What  is  the  ration  used  for  fattening  ? 

5.  If,  when  pigs  are  allowed  to  "hog  down"  corn  it 
takes  eight  pounds  of  corn  to  produce  one  pound  of  pork,  but 
requires  ten  pounds  of  corn  to  make  a  pound  of  pork  when 
the  corn  is  fed  in  a  pen,  what  will  be  the  difference  in  the 
value  of  the  corn  fed  twenty  hogs  while  they  are  making  an 
average  gain  of  seventy-five  pounds  each,  corn  being  worth 
fifty-five  cents  a  bushel  ? 


334  .  AGRICULTURE 

9^^  6.  Have  you  any  hogs  that  do  not  seem  to  be  thriving  ? 
If  so,  can  you  judge  what  is  the  matter?  Do  they  cough? 
Do  they  lack  appetite  ?  Do  they  look  rough  coated,  and 
run  down?  Is  it  likely  that  they  have  tuberculosis?  That 
they  have  worms  ?    Have  they  the  thumps  ? 

7.  Examine  several  hogs  out  of  your  herd  for  the  pres- 
ence of  lice.  Are  your  hogs  ever  treated  for  lice?  Why 
is  it  that  lousy  hogs  never  thrive  well  ? 

8.  Compare  all  the  different  types  of  hog-houses  used 
in  your  neighborhood.  How  many  are  clean,  light,  well 
ventilated,  and  have  the  windows  so  placed  that  the  pens 
receive  the  sunlight  during  the  spring  farrowing  season? 

9.  Discuss  the  value  of  the  cholera  serum  as  a  pre- 
ventative for  hog  cholera.  How  would  you  proceed  to  get 
state  and  government  help  for  the  care  of  hogs  if  any  of 
them  showed  symptoms  of  hog  cholera?  What  are  some 
of  the  symptoms  ? 

10.  Show  how  to  keep  a  book  account  of  a  pen  of  pigs, 
five  in  number,  for  a  season  of  six  months.  The  items 
should  include  labor  costs,  feed  and  equipment, 

11.  Show  upon  the  map  the  relative  standing  of  the 
hog  states  of  the  Union.  Has  there  been  a  falling  off  or 
an  increase  in  hog  production  during  the  last  ten  years? 
Refer  to  the  last  census  report  of  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture. 

6.    Demonstrations 

1.  Demonstrate  upon  the  blackboard  or  with  paste- 
board or  paper,  how  to  make  a  hog-house ;  also  a  hog  pen 
with  feeding  floor;  then  make  a  miniature  outfit  for  the 
club  fe^ival  or  school  fair. 

2.  How  best  to  move  hogs  from  place  to  place.  Would 
you  drive,lead,  or  coax  them? 

3.  Demonstrate  by  diagram  the  proper  divisions  of  a 
hog  for  the  butcher's  meat  block. 

4.  Demonstrate  the  proper  method  for  the  vaccination 
of  hogs  for  hog  cholera.  (Consult  Farmers'  Bulletin  No. 
379.) 


I 


SWINE  335 

5.  How  to  make  feeding  and  watering  troughs  for  hog 
pens,  in  a  simple  inexpensive  way. 

7.     Play  Contests 

1.  Contest  in  hog  judging. 

2.  Naming  and  giving  five  characteristics  of  each  of 
the  various  types  or  breeds  of  hogs. 

3.  Spelling  contest,  in  which  words  relating  to  the  hog 
industry  are  used. 

4.  Essay  writing  contest  on  one  or  more  of  the  follow- 
ing subjects :  "The  Origin  of  the  Hog" ;  "The  Care  and 
Feeding  of  Hogs" ;  "Treatment  for  Diseases  of  Hogs." 

5.  Drawing  contest  of  hogs,  hog  pens,  equipment,  etc. 

8.    Pig  Club  Project 

The  pig  club  work  can  easily  be  combined  with  the 
corn  or  grain  "club.  Each  club  member  takes  thoroughbred 
pigs  to  raise  in  connection  with  the  corn  or  grain  crop, 
keeping,  of  course,  separate  records  of  each  interest  and 
charging  against  the  hog  all  grain  or  other  feed,  from  the 
club  acre.  Careful  records  of  observation,  receipts  and 
expenditures  should  be  kept  in  connection  with  the  pig 
club  work  and  the  project  should  cover  at  least  twelve 
months  of  work. 

The  basis  of  award  in  this  particular  project  should  be 
as  follows: 

1.  The  exhibit  of  the  hog  and  relation  to  its  purpose  judged 

by  score-card   25 

2.  Average  gain  per  day  or  month 25 

3.  Net  profit  and  cost  of  production 25 

4.  Records  and  story  on  "How  I  Raised  My  Hog" 25 

Total    score 100 

23 


CHAPTER  XXII 
SHEEP 

THE  raising  of  sheep  has  never  received  the  attention  it 
deserves  in  most  regions.  There  are  at  present  only  a 
little  more  than  fifty  million  sheep  on  the  farms  of  the 
United  States.  Almost  sixty  per  cent,  of  our  sheep  are  found 
in  ten  states,  seven  of  which  are  in  the  far  West,  one  in  the 
South,  and  only  two  in  the  middle  and  eastern  states.  Ac- 
cording to  their  importance  in  sheep  raising,  these  states 
are:  Montana,  Wyoming,  Ohio,  New  Mexico,  Idaho,  Ore- 
gon, California,  Michigan,  Texas  and  Utah.  Other  middle 
western  states  having  important  sheep  interests  are  Mis- 
souri, Indiana,  Kentucky,  Iowa  and  Illinois. 

1.    Importance  of  Sheep  on  the  Farm 

Sheep  could  be  raised  with  good  profit  on  thousands  of 
farms  where  they  are  now  unknown.  They  are  among  the 
most  hardy  of  the  domestic  animals,  and  will  thrive  in  al- 
most every  part  of  the  country. 

Sheep  as  foragers. — Sheep  have  no  equal  among  the 
farm  animals  as  foragers.  They  will  eat  a  wide  range  of 
roughage,  much  of  which  is  not  available  for  other  stock. 
Certain  weeds  not  palatable  to  most  animals  are  eaten  by 
sheep,  and  they  therefore  aid  in  keeping  pastures,  meadows 
and  fields  clean.  Sheep  will  graze  steep  hillsides  not  acces- 
sible to  horses  or  cattle,  and  will  feed  from  the  foliage 
and  twigs  of  brushland  pastures.    They  find  a  good  living 

336 


SHEEP 


237 


on  stubble-fields,  and  will  clean  up  the  waste  leaves,  husks 
and  stalks  of  corn-fields,  being  able  to  thrive  in  fields  where 
cattle  and  horses  have  gleaned  all  that  they  can  well  find. 
Sheep  can  therefore  obtain  a  considerable  part  of  their  liv- 
ing from  material  that  would  otherwise  go  to  waste. 


Slieep  grazing  in  Washington. 

Sheep  require  little  labor. — Comparatively  little  labor 
is  required  in  caring  for  sheep.  In  order  to  maintain  the 
fertility  of  the  soil,  we  need  to  raise  more  stock  on  our 
farms.  Half  a  dozen  sheep  will  produce  as  much  income 
a.s  a  dairy  cow,  and  demand  much  less  labor  for  their  care. 


338  AGRICULTURE 

Their  heavy  coats  enable  sheep  to  live  in  relatively  open 
sheds  in  the  winter,  providing  they  are  kept  dry.  The  cost 
of  shelter  is  therefore  low. 

One  of  the  chief  practical  difficulties  in  sheep  raising 
is  that  the  fences  suitable  for  horses  and  cattle  will  not 
hold  sheep.  The  present  tendency,  however,  is  to  build 
closer  fences,  so  that  fields  will  be  available  for  both  hogs 
and  sheep.  In  some  regions  serious  loss  of  sheep  occurs 
from  vicious  dogs,  wolves  and  coyotes.  Sheep-killing  dogs 
should  be  relentlessly  shot. 

Sheep  bring  quick  returns. — Sheep  are  almost  as  good 
as  poultry  for  quick  returns.  For  ordinary  farm  purposes 
breeds  are  usually  selected  to  produce  both  wool  and  mut- 
ton. In  this  way  a  double  yield  can  be  secured — fleeces  from 
all  the  flock,  and  either  lambs. or  mutton  in  addition. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  fleece  from  good  sheep  should 
pay  for  their  feed,  thereby  leaving  the  lambs  raised  or  the 
mutton  produced  as  profit.  Lambs  are  ready  for  market  at 
from  seven  to  twelve  months  of  age,  thus  allowing  the 
money  invested  in  them  to  be  turned  quickly. 

2.    Breeds  of  Sheep 

Sheep,  like  cattle,  are  kept  for  two  purposes.  Just  as 
cattle  include  both  the  beef  and  the  dairy  breeds,  so  sheep 
comprise  mutton  breeds  and  merino,  or  zvool,  breeds. 

Mutton  breeds. — Mutton  breeds  of  sheep  correspond 
to  beef  breeds  of  cattle — their  forms  must  be  such  as  to 
yield  the  best  results  on  the  butcher's  block,  and  they  must 
be  able  to  change  their  feed  profitably  into  mutton. 

Mutton  breeds  are  divided  into  two  classes  in  accordance 
with  the  length  of  their  wool:  (1)  medium  zvool,  or  down 
type,  of  which  there  are  eight  different  breeds;  and  (2) 
long  wool,  of  which  there  are  three  breeds.  » 


SHEEP 


339 


Medium  wool  breeds — 

Shropshire 

Southdown 

Oxford 

Hampshire 

Dorset-Horn 

Cheviot 

Tunis 


Long  wool  breeds — 

Leicester 
Cotswold 
Lincoln 


Sheep  grazing,  typical  of  western  states. 

The  mutton  breeds  are  more  commonly  used  for  the  gen- 
eral purposes  of  the  farmer  than  are  the  breeds  that  are 
classified  as  merino. 

Merino  breeds. — The  merino  breeds  of  sheep  corre- 
spond to  the  dairy  breeds  of  cattle.  The  build  is  more 
angular  than  that  of  the  mutton  breeds,  and  the  general 
form  such  as  to  give  the  largest  surface  for  the  attach- 
ment of  fleece.  On  the  pure  wool  breeds  the  skin  often 
hangs  in  folds  on  certain  parts  of  the  body,  thus  increasing 


340  AGRICULTURE 

the  area  for  the  growth  of  wool.     The  three  chief  merino 
breeds  are: 

American  Merino 
Delaine  Merino 
Rambouillet 

Market  classes  of  sheep. — Wholly  regardless  of  breed, 
market  demands  divide  sheep  into  three  groups  or  classes. 
These  are  (1)  fat,  or  mutton  sheep,  or  those  ready  for 
slaughter ;  if  the  animals  are  less  than  one  year  old,  they 
are  called  lambs;  (2)  feeders,  or  animals  ready  to  be  fat- 
tened; and  (3)  breeders. 

3.     Feeding  Sheep 

What  has  been  said  about  the  ability  of  sheep  to  forage 
for  a  great  part  of  their  food  must  not  be  understood  to 
mean  that  it  does  not  matter  what  sheep  are  given  to  eat. 
For  sheep  are  exactly  like  all  other  animals  in  requiring 
the  right  proportion  of  nutritive  elements  in  their  food. 
Lacking  a  proper  ration,  they  will  be  checked  in  growth, 
delayed  in  fattening,  or  short  on  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
wool. 

Feeding  ewes  kept  for  breeding. — Ewes  that  are  to 
produce  lambs  in  the  spring  may  be  fed  through  the  winter 
on  a  cheaper  ration  than  that  required  for  the  feeders.  The 
ewes  need  more  of  the  muscle-forming,  and  less  of  the  fat- 
producing  foods.  Their  rations  may  therefore  consist  more 
largely  of  roughage,  and  less  of  grains  than  for  the  fat- 
tening lambs. 

For  breeding  ewes  weighing  from  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds,  the  following 
daily  rations  have  been  tested  by  the  Minnesota  Experiment 
Station  and  have  been  found  to  be  economical  and  satis- 
factory : 


« 


SHEEP 


341 


Ration  No.  1. 


Ration  No.  2. 


3.5  pounds  of  corn  stover. 
2.0  pounds  of  roots. 
.4  pounds  of  oats    or    shelled 
corn., 


2.       pounds  of  clover  hay. 
1.4     pounds  of  corn  stover. 
.4    pounds  of  oats    and    corn 
mixed. 


Montana  sheep  ready  for  shipment. 

Feeding  for  market, — The  ration  for  fattening  re- 
quires a  larger  proportion  of  fats  and  carbohydrates  than 
the  ones  just  described.  It  has  also  been  found  that  lambs 
fatten  best  with  a  mixture  of  succulent  food  along  with  the 
usual  roughage  and  grain. 

The  Cornell  University  Experiment  Station  has  tried 
extensive  experiments  in  fattening  different  lots  of  lambs 


342  AGRICULTURE 

during  a  period  of  one  hundred  and  ten  days.     Each  of  the 
following  rations  served  fifty  lambs  for  one  day : 

Ration  No.  1.  Ration  No.  2. 


60  pounds  of  silage.  65  pounds  of  mixed  hay. 

50  pounds  of  mixed  hay.  35  pounds  of  corn. 

35  pounds  of  corn.  15  pounds  of  oats. 
13  pounds  of  oats.  5  pounds  of  brewer's  grains. 

5  pounds  of  brewer's  grain. 

Ration  No.  3.  Ration  No.  4. 


65  pounds  of  mixed  hay.  60  pounds  of  silage. 

10  pounds  of  corn.  50  pounds  of  mixed  hay. 

20  pounds  of  brewer's  grains.        10  pounds  of  corn. 
20  pounds  of  gluten.  '  20  pounds  of  brewer's  grains. 

5  pounds  of  oats.  20  pounds  of  gluten. 

5  pounds  of  oats. 

It  should  be  understood  in  studying  these  rations  that 
at  the  beginning  of  the  feeding  period  a  larger  proportion 
of  roughage  and  a  smaller  proportion  of  grain  were  fed.  By 
the  end  of  the  one-hundred-and-ten-day  period  this  propor- 
tion had  been  reversed.  The  rations  as  given  are  the  daily 
average  for  the  whole  time. 

The  actual  amount  of  nutrients  is  the  same  for  each  of 
these  four  rations,  yet  the  results  differ  considerably  both 
as  to  cost  and  the  amount  of  fat  produced,  as  is  shown  by 
the  following  comparisons: 


Ration 

1 
2 
3 
4 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  most  rapid  gains,  and  at  the 
lowest  cost  per  pound  were  from  the  rations  that  contained 


Average  gain  per  sheep 

Cost  per  pound 

in  110  days 

of  gain 

22.7  pounds 

10.6  cents 

15.7        " 

15.9      " 

18.9       " 

13.2      " 

25.1 

9.6      " 

i 


SHEEP  343 

silage.  It  is  also  seen  that  the  lowest  gain,  and  at  the 
highest  cost  per  pound,  was  from  ration  No.  2,  where  all 
succulent  food  was  lacking,  and  most  of  the  grain  ration 
consisted  of  corn  and  oats. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Make  a  study  of  the  sheep  raising  industry  in  your 
vicinity,  determining  (1)  how  many  sheep  are  kept,  (2) 
what  breeds  are  most  used,  (3)  whether  mutton  or  wool  is 
depended  on  for  the  chief  source  of  profit,  and  (4)  what 
method  of  feeding  and  housing  is  principally  followed. 

2.  Which  would  probably  add  more  labor  on  your 
farm,  increasing  your  dairy  herd  by  five  cows,  or  keeping 
a  flock  of  thirty  sheep?  How  would  the  profits  probably 
compare?    What  is  the  basis  for  your  judgment? 

3.  Suppose  the  cost  of  the  nutrients  making  up  the 
fattening  rations  shown  on  page  342  was  as  follows :  Hay, 
ten  dollars  a  ton  ;  silage,  two  dollars  and  fifty  cents  a  ton  ; 
corn,  sixty-five  cents  a  bushel ;  oats,  forty-five  cents  a 
bushel ;  distiller's  grains,  thirty  dollars  a  ton ;  gluten, 
twenty-five  dollars  a  ton.  Figure  what  it  cost  to  feed  fifty 
lambs  with  each  ration  for  one  hundred  and  ten  days. 

4.  After  judging  one  or  more  sheep  under  the  direction 
of  the  teacher,  judge  several  animals  independently,  and 
then  have  your  markings  criticized  and  corrected. 

5.  Write  an  argument  of  three  hundred  words  showing 
why  sheep  raising  should  be  extended  as  an  industry  in 
your  neighborhood  and  county. 

6.  Show  how  to  keep  a  record  of  labor  costs,  pasture 
rent,  feed  and  shearing  of  ten  sheep. 

7.  Indicate  on  the  map  of  the  United  States  the  sheep 
areas  and  the  approximate  number  of  sheep  in  each  state 
as  shown  by  the  last  census  report. 

8.  Enumerate  in  your  note-book  the  various  products 
supplied  by  sheep. 

4,     Sheep  Demonstrations 

1.  Demonstrate  the  proper  method  of  shearing  sheep. 

2.  Show  how  to  make  a  balanced  ration  for  sheep  for 
the  month  of  January  in  your  locality. 


344  AGRICULTURE 

'    3,     Demonstrate  how  to  judge  the  sheep.    Use  drawing, 
photograph  or  chart. 

4.  Demonstrate  how  to  judge  a  lamb  for  mutton  pur- 
poses.   Use  an  animal  in  this  case  if  possible. 

5.  Show  how  to  judge  sheep  for  wool  purposes.  Use 
the  animal  in  this  case. 

5.  Sheep  Play  Contests 

1.  Breed  naming  contests. 

2.  .Wool  fabric  judging  contest.  A  number  of  small 
pieces  of  various  kinds  of  wool  cloth,  mixed  with  half  wool 
and  half  cotton  pieces,  and  some  cotton  pieces  can  be 
placed  before  the  pupils  with  a  view  to  teaching  them 
how  to  distinguish  between  all-wool,  part-wool,  or  cotton 
goods. 

3.  Essay  writing  contest  on  "The  Life  History  of 
Sheep." 

4.  Sheep  judging  contest. 

5.  Five-minute  extemporaneous  speaking  contest.  In 
this  contest  have  club  members  obtain  all  kinds  of  informa- 
tion with  a  view  to  making  a  speech  either  for  or  against  the 
production  of  sheep  on  the  average  farm  of  the  community. 
The  object  of  this  is  to  have  them  use  the  information  ob- 
tained from  the  text,  investigations,  etc.,  and  apply  this  to 
their  own  farming  conditions. 

6.  Sheep  Club  Projects 

There  are  two  practical  club  projects  in  connection  with 
this  line  of  work:  The  mutton  production  club,  and  the 
wool  production  club. 

Mutton  production  club. — In  connection  with  this 
club  project  the  members  are  to  take  from  one  to  a  dozen 
spring  lambs  and  care  for  them,  keeping  a  record  for  a 
definite  period  of  time,  with  a  view  to  preparing  them  for 


I: 


SHEEP  345 

the  mutton  market.     The  basis  of  award  for  this  project 
may  be : 

1.  Net  profit   or   cost   of  production 30 

2.  Condition  of  lamb,  judged  by  score-card 30 

3.  Records  of  cost  of  labor,  feeding,  etc 20 

4.  Story  of  "How  to  Produce  Good  Mutton" 20 

Total    score 100 

Wool  production  club. — This  may  consist  of  taking 
care  of  one  or  more  sheep  for  a  year's  time,  and  may  require 
the  club  member  to  select  the  sheep  on  the  basis  of  high 
wool  production.  Keep  records  and  accounts  of  labor  and 
feed,  as  well  as  wool  receipts.  The  net  profit  on  investment 
is  to  come  from  the  returns  from  the  wool  rather  than  the 
mutton.    The  basis  of  award  may  be : 

1.  Net    profit    or    cost    of   production 30 

2.  Condition  and  quality  of  wool  produced 30 

3.  Exhibit   of   samples   of  wool 20 

4.  Records    and    story    of    "How    to    Produce    High-grade 

Wool    Economically" 20 

Total    score 100 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
POULTRY 

THE  raising  of  poultry  is  considered  of  rather  incidental 
importance  on  rnost  farms.  A  few  chickens  are  kept 
for  supplying  the  table  with  fresh  eggs  and  an  occasional 
fowl.  Perhaps  a  flock  of  turkeys,  ducks  or  geese  are  added 
for  the  sake  of  variety.  Little  attention  is  usually  given  to 
the  possibility  of  large  profits  from  the  sale  of  eggs  and 
poultry. 

Yet,  in  spite  of  this  somewhat  haphazard  method  of 
treating  the  poultry  industry,  its  aggregate  returns  are  very 
large.  For  more  than  five  and  one-half  million  farms  have 
a  flock  of  chickens  or  other  fowl.  In  addition,  not  a  few 
people  in  villages  and  towns  keep  enough  fowl  for  home 
use. 

L  Take  a  census  of  all  the  fowls  on  your  home  farm, 
dividing  into  chickens,  ducks,  geese,  etc. 

2.  How  many  of  each  class  are  in  their  first  year ;  sec- 
ond year;  third  year,  etc.? 

3.  Carefully  estimate  the  value  of  each  class  of  fowls, 
and  compute  the  value  of  all. 

1.    Distribution  of  Poultry  Production 

Nearly  five  hundred  million  fowls  are  kept  on  the  farms 
in  our  population.  Considerably  more  than  one  and  one- 
half  billion  dozen  eggs  are  produced  annually.  This  is 
enough  to  supply  every  man,  woman  and  child  with  fifteen 

346 


POULTRY  347 

dozen  eggs  each  year.  The  value  of  the  eggs  is  in  excess  of 
three  hundred  milHon  dollars  a  year,  or  sufficient  to  pay 
about  three-fourths  of  the  running  expenses  of  all  our 
public  schools.  The  fowls  themselves  are  worth  above  two 
hundred  million  dollars. 

The  ten  leading  poultry  states. — Ten  states  supply 
about  fifty-four  per  cent,  of  all  the  eggs  we  produce.  These 
states  are  Missouri,  Iowa,  Ohio,  Illinois,  Kansas,  Indiana, 
Texas,  Pennsylvania,  New  York  and  Michigan. 

The  percentage  of  the  entire  Qgg  crop  produced  by  each 
of  these  ten  states  is  as  follows : 

Missouri  7.0% 

Iowa  6.9% 

Ohio  6.3% 

-Illinois  6.37o 

Kansas  5.1% 

Indiana  5.1% 

Texas  4.9% 

Pennsylvania  4.7% 

New  York  4.6% 

Michigan  3.8% 

2.     Poultry  Raising  as  a  Farm  Industry 

There  are  several  good  reasons  why  the  raising  of  poul- 
try should  occupy  a  more  important  place  than  it  now  does 
on  most  of  our  farms. 

Increasing  demands  for  eggs  and  poultry. — Eggs 
form  one  of  the  most  necessary  and  palatable  articles  of 
food.  With  improved  methods  of  shipping  and  cold  storage 
they  have  increasingly  become  a  staple  on  almost  every 
table,  city  as  well  as  country.  The  prices  are  high,  a  dozen 
of  eggs  bringing  the  farmer  about  as  much  as  a  pound  of 
butter.  The  demand  for  fowl  as  a  supplement  to  other 
kinds  of  meat  has  also  greatly  increased,  and  there  is  now 


348 


AGRICULTURE 


a  ready  market  throughout  the  year  for  all  kinds  of  poultry 
suitable  for  the  table. 

Low  cost  of  feeding  poultry. — A  fair-sized  flock  of 
poultry  can  be  kept  on  the  farm  with  but  little  expense  for 
feed.  This  is  because  fowl  will  gather  up  the  greater  part 
of  their  living  from  material  that  would  otherwise  be  wasted. 
Scattered  grain  from  the  feed  lots ;  undigested  grain  from 
farm  animals ;  weed  and  grass  seeds ;  grass  and  various 


■S          '   .mmli 

i^ 

« 

j||||g|gim|||g|g_ 

A  year's  prpduct  of  an  average  hen  and  a  good  hen. 
average  hen  hi  Id  75  eggs,  the  good  hen  223  eggs. 


The 


green  plants  about  the  barn  lots,  worms,  bugs,  grasshoppers 
and  other  insect  pests  form  a  large  part  of  the  diet  of  farm 
poultry  during  most  of  the  year. 

The  labor  of  caring  for  poultry  is  light. — The  labor 
connected  with  poultry  raising  is  much  lighter  than  with 
other  farm  animals.  Much  of  the  work  is  suited'  to  the 
strength  and  interest  of  children,  and  gives  the  training  in 
responsibility  which  every  child  needs.     With  a  little  over- 


POULTRY  349 

sight,  children  of  from  ten  to  eighteen  years  can  successfully 
take  almost  entire  charge  of  poultry  raising  and  make  it 
highly  profitable.  This  has  been  fully  demonstrated  in  many 
boys'  and  girls'  poultry  clubs  in  nearly  every  state. 

Quick  profits  are  realized. — The  profits  from  a  well 
managed  flock  of  chickens  are  not  only  liberal  and  certain, 
but  quick.  Chickens  are  ready  for  market  within  a  few 
months  from  the  time  they  are  hatched,  and  hens  are  at 
their  best  as  layers  during  the  first  and  second  years  of  their 
life.  And  the  eggs  afford  a  continuous  source  of  income 
to  meet  the  expense  of  any  feed  or  other  supplies  that  are 
bought,  or  to  add  to  the  bank  account. 

Almost  all  farm  boys  and  girls  could  become  expert 
chicken  raisers  and,  by  making  arrangements  with  their 
parents  to  receive  a  share  of  the  income  from  the  flock, 
earn  their  own  money  for  clothes,  books,  schooling,  travel 
or  whatever  else  they  may  desire. 

3.    Breeds  of  Chickens 

According  to  experts  there  are  one  hundred  and  four 
standard  varieties  of  chickens  raised  in  the  United  States. 
There  are  many  other  varieties  not  sufficiently  developed  to 
be  called  standard.  For  practical  purposes  the  standard 
varieties  may  all  be  grouped  in  four  classes:  (1)  General 
purpose  breeds ;  (2)  meat  or  table  breeds;  (3)  tgg  breeds; 
(4)  ornamental  breeds. 

General  purpose  breeds. — ^The  general  purpose 
breeds  are  the  result  of  an  attempt  to  combine  egg-laying 
with  good  table  qualities.    The  favorites  of  these  breeds  are : 

Plymouth  Rocks,  Barred,  White  and  Buflf. 

Wyandottes,  Silver,  Golden,  White,  Buff,  Black,  etc. 

Javas,  Black  and   Mottled. 

Dominiques,  Rose-comb. 

Rhode    Island    Reds,   Single-comb   and    Rose-comb. 


Barred  IMvinouth  Kocks. 


Siugle<'ouib  Rhode  Island  Keds. 


POULTRY  351 

Buckeyes,   Pea-comb. 

Orpingtons,   Buff,  Black  and  White. 

Houdans,  Mottled. 

Meat  breeds. — The  meat,  or  table,  breeds  are  chiefly 
raised  for  the  large  markets.  They  must  be  of  good  shape 
and  size,  quick  growers  and  ready  fatteners.  The  principal 
breeds  of  this  class  are : 

Brahmas,  Light  and  Dark. 

Cochins,  Buff,  Partridge,  White  and  Black. 

Langshans,  Black  and  White. 

Dorkings,  White,  Silver-gray  and  Colored. 

Indians,   White   Game. 

Egg  breeds. — The  prime  consideration  in  the  egg 
breeds  is  that  they  shall  be  good  layers,  begin  laying  young, 
and  continue  for  a  considerable  period  of  time.  The  chief 
breeds  are: 

Leghorns,  Brown,   Buff,  White,   Black,  etc. 

Minorcas,  Black  and  White. 

Spanish,  White-faced   Black. 

Andalusians,  Blue. 

Anconas,  Mottled. 

Hamburgs,  Gold  and  Silver  Spangled,  White  and  Black. 

Redcaps,   Rose-comb. 

Ornamental  breeds. — The  ornamental  breeds  are  not 
important  for  practical  farm  purposes.  Some  of  the  favor- 
ites of  these  breeds  are : 

Polish,  White-crested  Black,  Golden,  Silver,  White,  Golden. 

Crevecoeurs,   Black. 

La  Fleche,   Black. 

Bantams. 

Games.  . 

It  is  best  not  to  mix  breeds  of  chickens.  First  one  should 
decide  what  class  is  desired,  whether  egg,  meat,  or  general 


^' 


Single-comb  Buff  Orpingtons. 


liluck  Lungshuuis. 


POULTRY 


353 


purpose.    Then  a  pure  breed  of  this  class  should  be  selected, 
^nd  the  strain  kept  free  from  mixture  with  other  breeds. 

1.  Are  the  chickens  on  your  farm  pure  bred,  grade,  or 
scrub  ?  What  breed  or  breeds  do  you  use  ?  Is  this  an  egg, 
meat  or  general  purpose  breed? 

2.  What  steps  could  be  taken  to  improve  the  breed? 


Light  Brahmas. 


Would  this  not  pay?    Do  egg  or  table  breeds  return  most 
profit  under  farm  conditions? 


4.    Producing  Chickens 

A  successful  hatch  depends  (1)  on  securing  fertile  un- 
injured eggs,  and  (2)  on  proper  incubation. 

Eggs  for  hatching. — Heredity  has  its  effect  in  fowl  as 
well  as  other  animals.  The  eggs  for  hatching  should  there- 
fore come  from  the  choicest  and  most  vigorous  members 


354  AGRICULTURE 

*  of  the  flock.  The  best  plan  is  to  separate  from  the  main 
flock  a  sufficient  number  of  desirable  hens  to  produce  the 
eggs  required  for  setting.  These  can  be  kept  by  them- 
selves until  the  hatching  season  is  over. 

In  order  that  eggs  may  hatch  at  all  they  must  be  fertile. 
They  are  made  fertile  by  the  presence  of  a  male  bird  in 
the  flock  during  the  laying  season.  One  male  should  be 
supplied  for  every  ten  or  twelve  hens.  Since  one-half  of  the 
heredity  of  the  entire  flock  is  dependent  on  the  male  bird, 
he  should  be  pure  bred,  the  best  of  his  kind,  young  and 
vigorous. 

Care  of  eggs  before  setting. — Eggs  should  be  fresh 
when  they  are  set,  never  more  than  two  weeks  old,  and 
better  if  not  more  than  a  few  days  from  the  nest.  They 
should  be  kept  rather  cool,  a  suitable  temperature  being 
between  fifty  and  sixty  degrees  Fahrenheit.  Eggs  that  have 
been  badly  chilled  will  not  hatch.  It  is  necessary,  therefore, 
that  eggs  intended  for  hatching  shall  be  gathered  at  fre- 
quent intervals  during  cold  weather.  Many  poultry  men 
think  it  is  best  to  turn  the  eggs  over  every  day  or  so  during 
the  time  they, are  stored  before  setting.  They  should  never 
be  jarred  or  shaken. 

Hatching  with  the  hen. — Eggs  may  be  successfully 
hatched  either  with  a  hen  or  an  incubator.  If  the  hatch  is 
not  to  consist  of  more  than  from  one  hundred  to  two  hun- 
dred chicks,  and  if  the  hens  come  of  a  breed  of  good  setters, 
it  is  doubtful  whether  it  pays  to  use  an  incubator. 

Only  quiet,  motherly  hens  of  good  disposition  should  be 
used  for  setting.  The  nest  should  be  made  of  a  box  from 
fourteen  to  sixteen  inches  square,  and  six  inches  deep.  Four 
inches  of  earth  should  be  placed  in  the  box,  hollowed  slight- 
ly, and  covered  with  chaff  or  straw.  The  broody  hen  should 
be  removed  to  the  nest  at  night  and  given  a  few  china  eggs 


POULTRY 


355 


for  a  day  or  two  to  make  sure  that  she  is  in  earnest  about 
sitting.  From  thirteen  to  fifteen  eggs  may  then  be  given 
her  for  the  hatch.  It  is  well  to  dust  both  hen  and  nest  with 
insect  powder  to  destroy  vermin.  The  sitting  hen  should 
be  well  fed  on  such  grains  as  corn,  wheat,  or  oats,  have 


A  honie-iuadc  t'^LT  lesUT. 


plenty  of  fresh  water,  and  be  let  off  the  nest  a  short  time 
each  day  for  «xercise  and  a  dust  bath. 


356  AGRICULTURE 

Hatching  with  the  incubator. — Although  there  are 
many  different  makes  of  incubators,  they  all  supply  the  heat 
necessary  for  hatching  by  one  of  two  methods,  either  hot 
air,  or  hot  water.  All  of  the  standard  makes  will  be  found 
satisfactory,  though  the  hot-air  type  seems  less  likely  to  get 
out  of  order. 

Success  with  the  incubator  depends  much  more  on  the 
operator  than  the  machine.  For  unless  the  temperature  and 
ventilation  are  kept  right,  the  eggs  properly  turned,  and 
other  necessary  conditions  met,  the  hatch  is  sure  to  fail. 
The  directions  supplied  with  the  machine  must  be  faith- 
fully followed,  else  one  need  not  hope  for  success. 

Testing  for  infertile  eggs. — About  the  sixth  day  after 
setting  the  eggs  should  be  tested  and  the  infertile  ones  re- 
moved. The  testing  may  be  done  by  placing  a  small  lamp 
or  a  lantern  in  a  box  through  one  side  of  which  just  oppo- 
site the  light  a  hole  has  been  cut  somewhat  smaller  than 
an  tgg.  The  testing  should  be  done  in  the  dark,  preferably 
at  night.  The  egg  is  held  against  the  opening  in  front  of 
the  light.  As  the  light  shines  through,  the  infertile  eggs 
will  appear  clear,  while  the  fertile  egg  will  show  a  network 
of  threads  leading  out  from  a  center,  and  floating  about 
as  the  egg  is  turned.  If  a  number  of  hens  were  set  at  the 
same  time,  and  many  infertile  eggs  are  found,  one  hen 
may  be  released,  or  given  a  new  supply,  and  the  fertile 
eggs  distributed  among  the  others. 

Care  of  newly  hatched  chicks. — The  chicks  first 
hatched  from  a  setting  should  be  removed  from  the  nest 
in  about  twenty-four  hours.  If  they  are  not,  they  will  begin 
to  leave  the  nest  themselves,  and  the  hen  is  likely  to  desert 
the  nest  before  all  the  eggs  are  hatched.  The  chicks  must 
be  kept  warm  and  comfortable  until  the  mother  is  ready  for 
them. 


POULTRY 


357 


When  the  hatching  is  done  in  an  incubator,  the  chicks 
are  left  for  twenty-four  hours  after  hatching  and  then  re- 
moved to  the  brooder,  which  must  be  at  a  temperature  of 
from  ninety  to  ninety-five  degrees  Fahrenheit.  By  the  time 
the  chicks  are  a  month  old  the  brooder  may  be  brought 
gradually  down  to  seventy  degrees. 

1.  Is  any  care  taken  in  raising  chickens  on  your  farm 
toward  selecting  eggs  from  the  best  hens  for  setting?  Is 
care  taken  to  use  only  the  best  male  birds? 

2.  Draw  a  plan  for  a  suitable  nest  for  a  sitting  hen, 
showing  covered  runway. 


A  well-arranged  Interior,  showing  nests  and  feeding  equipment. 

3.  Do  you  make  the  test  for  infertile  eggs  after  the 
hens  have  been  set  about  a  week  ?  How  do  you  tell  whether 
the  egg  has  started  to  hatch  ? 


5.     Feeding  Chickens 
Feeding  young   chickens. — For   the   first   forty-eight 


358  AGRICULTURE 

hours  after  hatching  the  young  chick  needs  no  feed  of  any 
kind.  Nature  had  provided  for  this  period  by  having  the  yolk 
of  the  egg  absorbed  into  the  abdomen  of  the  chick  just  before 
it  is  hatched.  This  food  must  be  used  up  before  the  chick 
is  ready  for  more. 

The  first  food  given  the  chicks  may  be  stale  bread  soaked 
in  milk  and  squeezed  dry;  hard  boiled  eggs  chopped  fine, 
shell  and  all ;  or  cracked  corn,  wheat  or  oats.  A  good  grain 
ration  for  chicks  is  made  of  equal  parts  of  cracked  com, 
cracked  wheat  and  cut  oats  fed  five  times  a  day.  An  excel- 
lent supplementary  ration  to  hasten  growth  is  the  follow- 
ing :  Bran,  ten  pounds ;  shorts,  ten  pounds ;  cornmeal,  five 
pounds ;  meat  scraps,  five  pounds ;  charcoal,  two  and  one- 
half  pounds.  This  mixture  may  either  be  fed  wet  or  dry. 
Plenty  of  sour  milk  will  add  greatly  to  the  eflfectiveness  of 
the  ration.  Green  foods  should  also  be  supplied  from  the 
first. 

Feeding  laying  hens. — Hens,  like  other  animals,  do 
best  on  a  ration  balanced  to  meet  their  needs.  There  is 
no  one  best  ration,  since  the  necessary  food  elements  can  be 
obtained  from  many  different  sources.  It  is  certain,  how- 
ever, that  fowls  require  grain,  meat,  or  milk,  mill  feeds 
such  as  shorts,  or  bran,  green  foods,  sharp  grit,  shell  and 
water. 

The  following  is  recommended  as  a  well  balanced  lay- 
ing ration,  though  wheat  may  be  left  out  and  more  corn 
and  oats  added,  or  milk  supplied  instead  of  the  meat  scraps. 
(Purdue  Extension  Bulletin,  10.) 

Grain  Dby  Mash 


10  pounds  of  corn.  5      pounds  of  bran. 

10  pounds  of  wheat  S      pounds  of  shorts. 

5  pounds  of  oats.  3%  pounds  of  meat  scraps. 

The  grain  is  fed  in  a  litter  of  straw  night  and  morning. 


POULTRY  359 

and  the  mash  left  before  the  fowls  the  greater  part  of  the 
day.  Green  food,  grit  and  shell  are,  of  course,  added  to 
this  ration. 

Feeding  chickens  for  fattening. — ^^Chickens  should  be 
specially  fattened  for  market.  Not  only  is  weight  added, 
but  the  quality  of  the  meat  greatly  improved  by  fattening, 
and  a  higher  price  obtained.  When  unfattened  chickens 
are  selling  at  ten  cents,  the  same  fowls  when  fattened  will 
bring  fifteen  cents  in  the  city  markets. 

Both  the  pen  and  the  crate  method  of  fattening  are  used. 
Pen  fattening  requires  less  time  and  attention  than  crate 
fattening.  The  fattening  pen  should  be  kept  darkened  ex- 
cept at  feeding  time,  in  order  that  the  chickens  may  remain 
quiet.  A  suitable  ration  is  fed  at  regular  intervals,  and  in 
as  large  quantities  as  the  fowls  will  eat  in  from  twenty  to 
thirty  minutes. 

Crate  feeding. — More  rapid  fattening  is  possible  by 
placing  from  six  to  nine  chickens  in  a  crate.  The  fowls  are 
given  a  regular  ration,  and  kept  from  all  exercise.  About 
two  weeks  is  the  average  time  required  for  fattening.  An 
excellent  fattening  ration  may  be  compounded  as  follows : 

10  pounds  of  cornmeal. 

5  pounds  of  shorts. 

5  pounds  of  ground  oats. 
40  pounds  of  buttermilk. 

Cramming. — Poultrymen  who  make  a  business  of  fat- 
tening for  city  markets  often  use  the  cramming  system  of 
feeding.  This  method  is  based  on  the  fact  that  chickens 
will  not  eat  so  much  as  they  can  assimilate  and  use  in  mak- 
ing fat.  The  fowl  is  taken  from  the  pen  or  crate  and  held 
while  soft  food  is  pressed  down  the  throat  into  the  crop,  or 
passed  into  the  crop  by  means  of  a  tube  attached  to  a 
cramming  machine.  This  forcible  feeding  will  considerably 
hasten  the  fattening  process. 


360  AGRICULTURE 

6.    Producing  and  Marketing  Eggs 

Properly  handled  eggs  are  the  most  profitable  part  of 
the  poultry  business  on  the  farm.  It  is  therefore  well  to 
study  the  conditions  necessary  to  the  largest  production  of 
eggs.  The  number  of  eggs  produced  by  a  flock  depends 
(1)  on  the  breed,  whether  of  the  laying,  or  meat,  type;  (2) 
on  the  feed,  whether  it  consists  of  a  balanced  ration  con- 
taining the  elements  required  by  the  egg',  and  (3)  the 
housing  and  care. 

Profitable  layers. — There  is  a  great  difference  in  the 
laying  qualities  not  only  of  different  breeds,  but  also  of 
individual  hens.  An  average  grade  or  scrub  hen  will  lay 
about  seventy-five  eggs  in  a  year ;  a  high-class  hen  of  a  lay- 
ing breed,  more  than  two  hundred.  These  two  hens  eat  the 
same  amount  of  food,  take  the  same  amount  of  room,  and 
require  the  same  amount  of  care.  The  one  hardly  pays  for 
her  keep,  the  other  yields  a  handsome  profit.  It  will  pay 
every  farmer  to  weed  out  the  poor  layers  from  his  flock, 
and  fill  their  places  with  productive  hens. 

Age  and  egg  production. — Young  hens  are  the  best 
layers.  Only  in  the  case  of  exceptional  layers  should  hens 
be  kept  after  they  are  two  years  old.  Hens  that  have 
passed  their  second  year  will  continue  laying  and  produce 
a  fair  number  of  eggs,  but  younger  hens  will  produce  more 
eggs,  and  should  therefore  take  the  place  of  the  older  ones. 

Pullets  should  begin  laying  in  the  fall  of  their  first  year. 
In  order  that  they  may  do  this,  it  is  necessary  to  have  them 
hatched  out  early  in  the  preceding  spring,  preferably  not 
later  than  March  or  April.  They  should  then  lay  through- 
out the  winter,  and  be  at  their  best  the  following  summer. 

The  quality  of  eggs. — Eggs  are  rated  commercially 
according  to  size  as  extras  when  they  weight  from  twenty-six 
to  twenty-eight  ounces  to  the  dozen ;  as  firsts  when  they 
weigh  from  twenty-four  to  twenty-six  ounces  to  the  dozen ; 


POULTRY  361 

and  as  seconds  when  they  weigh  less  than  twenty-four 
ounces.  In  some  places  eggs  are  now  sold  by  weight.  For 
these  reasons  the  size  is  of  great  importance. 

To  command  the  highest  price,  eggs  should  also  be  uni- 
form in  shape  and  color,  the  shell  smooth  and  free, from 
spots,  and  clean  without  having  been  washed.  Tested  with 
the  candler  the  air  cell  should  be  no  larger  than  a  dime, 
thus  indicating  freshness;  the  contents  must  appear  opaque, 
the  yolks  barely  visible,  and  free  from  any  discoloring;  the 
white,  rnust  ,show  thick  and  compact,  the  yolk  not  floaiting 
about.  ^.■^•'';.''^^'  \'/  •;'>■■' 

•^fl.'    Make  a  candler  test  as  described  in  the  text,  and 
learn  to  tell  fresh  from  stale  eggs ;  fertile  from  infertile. 

2.  Score  the  eggs  collected  for  several  days  from  your 
farm  hens.  How  many  extras ;  firsts ;  seconds?  How  many 
were  dirty?    What  was  the  average  score? 

Effect  of  infertility  on  quality. — No  eggs  except  those 
intended  for  hatching  should  be  fertile.  This  is  .because 
infertile  eggs  keep  much  longer  and  in  better  flavor  than 
fertile  eggs.  If  a  fertile  egg  is  allowed  to  stand  in  a  warm 
temperature  for  two  or  three  days  it  begins  to  develop 
blood-rings ;  that  is,  it  begins  to  hatch.  This  process  is  sure 
to  go  on  during  the  marketing  and  shipping,  thus  greatly 
reducing  the  value  of  the  eggs.  The  infertile  egg  is  free 
from  all  this  difficulty,  and  will  keep  fresh  much  longer. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  loss  from  allowing  eggs  to  be- 
come fertilized  is  more  than  fifteen  million  dollars  annually 
in  the  United  States.  All  male  birds  should  therefore  be 
kept  away  from  laying  hens  when  the  eggs  are  to  be  used  or 
sold.  This  will  have  no  effect  on  the  number  of  eggs  pro- 
duced. 

Rules  for  egg  production. — ^The  following  rules  for 
egg  production  are  given  by  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture : 


t 


PRODL'CE  INFERTILE  EGGS  ^  ^ 
Fi^FA'ENT  LOSS  FROM  BAD-E:Gc;S 


•.:'>i!i:i!:„».:twai    .    ,t  .  cliroal«J.l$45,tX)ll,00ll«nnu. 

II   1>  Ai.-O  KsTlM\ttX>  THAT  $15,0i»,0iW  O! 
■  ■'UL  ro  BLr>OD  RINGS. . 


H- 


llir  gnm  unlil 
1 

n  tirvrl 

bo(  »u(nmrr  h 
1  nol  be  pwfi< 


Ik. 


(  bulk  trom  thcllock.and  xili/r  n.  . 
.i.il  .^  llx-  nulf  .buj.  U  »h...l.ii 


"J.  Kcyfj  ihf  fi^(:t  In  «  t'Kil.  iliv  inom  ui  ir 

■1    M.rlrl  Itv-  rja;.  .1  lr.,(  |„„r  .  «rrk, 

^.lU.ll.oi  ,<,rji»'  .11  m.1.^  I.jrl>«  . 

NoricK 


UlftrBMiwi  ™  rly  c  «i^  iA  1,^11)  «rKl  ntv-i  mif  Ix-  M  bv  wm 
1'-  ib<-  llur.iu  nl  Animil  loJuury.  U  S,  l>|«iimrtil  ti  Ajiitvilli 


Fertile  and  Infertile  eggs. 


POULTRY  363 

1.  Keep  the  nests  clean;  provide   one  nest  for  each  four 

hens. 

2.  Gather  the  eggs  twice  daily. 

3.  Keep  the  eggs  in  a  cool  dry  room  or  cellar. 

4.  Market  the  eggs  at  least  twice  a  week. 

5.  Market,   kill   or   confine  all   male  birds  as   soon  as   the 

hatching  season  is  over. 

7.     Housing  the  Poultry 

There  are  almost  as  many  different  styles  of  poultry 
houses  as  dwelling  houses.  The  exact  form  of  the  poultry 
house  is  not  important,  though  some  types  are  more  pleas- 
ing in  appearance  and  less  expensive  than  others.  Every 
state  agricultural  college  has  plans  for  poultry  houses 
adapted  to  the  region  and  will  be  glad  to  supply  these  to 
citizens  of  the  state.  No  matter  what  the  style,  however, 
certain  fundamental  requirements  should  be  met  by  all 
poultry  houses. 

Drainage. — Poultry  are  especially  sensitive  to  unhy- 
gienic surroundings.  Impurities  arising  from  ground  sat- 
urated with  unclean  seepage,  and  dampness  coming  from 
undrained  soil  are  sure  to  injure  the  fowls.  The  poultry 
house  should  be  built  on  well  drained  ground.  Drain  tile 
should  be  used  to  carry  the  water  away  if  necessary. 

Room. — In  many  instances  a  flock  of  chickens  are 
crowded  into  a  space  far  too  small  for  them,  and  the 
owner  then  wonders  why  they  do  not  thrive  well  or  lay 
eggs.  The  amount  of  floor  space  should  be  from  four  to  five 
square  feet  for  each  bird.  If  there  is  free  access  to  a  shel- 
tered yard,  somewhat  less  than  this  may  serve,  but  better 
sell  part  of  the  flock  than  overcrowd  them  in  small  pens. 

Ventilation. — Chickens  require  far  more  air  accord- 
ing to  their  weight  than  larger  animals.  Confinement  in 
close,  ill-smelling  rooms  is  certain  to  lower  their  vitality, 
bring  on  diseases,  and  interfere  with  laying.     In  climates 


Brood  coops  set  on  clean  fresh  ground.    This  flock  is  in  little 
danger  of  disease. 


mm^^^s^^mmmmi 


p 


y^k 


A  practical  ben  t(ou8e  for  the  farm. 


POULTRY  365 

where  the  poultry  house  can  not  have  an  open  front,  two 
or  more  sashes  should  be  covered  with  musUn  instead  of 
being  glazed,  and  hung  on  hinges  so  that  the  window  may 
be  thrown  open  in  good  weather.  In  bad  weather  the  sash 
may  be  closed  and  yet  admit  sufficient  air.  Drafts  should 
never  strike  chickens  either  while  they  are  on  the  roost  or 
the  floor. 

Sunlight. — Sunlight  is  the  best  of  disinfectants.  The 
poultry  house  should  front  the  south,  and  have  a  reason- 
able number  of  glazed  windows  besides  the  muslin  sashes. 
Too  much  glass  makes  the  house  excessively  hot  in  the 
summer  and  very  cold  in  the  winter;  too  little  glass  leaves 
the  quarters  dark  and  gloomy,  hinders  the  chickens  in  feed- 
ing, and  encourages  disease.      > 

Freedom  from  dampness.^^When  frost  gathers  heav- 
ily inside  the  poultry  house  in  cold  weather  it  shows  too 
great  a  degree  of  dampness.  This  may  come  from  the 
ground  floor,  or  lack  of  ventilation  and  sunlight.  If  a  soil 
floor  ;i§^  used,  there  should  first  be  filled  in  several  inches 
of  broken  rock.  On  top  of  this  may  be  placed  a  coating  of 
cinders,  and  over  the  cinders  a  layer  of  soil.  The  soil  floor 
at  its  best  is  hard  to  keep  clean,  dry  and  free  from  odors. 
Cement  makes  an  excellent  floor,  as  it  can  easily  be  washed. 
Over  the  cement  should  be  spread  an  inch  or  two  of  straw 
or  hay. 

Comfortable  roosts. — Fowls  spend  much  time  on  the 
roosts.  It  is  therefore  important  that  the  roosts  be  com- 
fortable. Roosts  may  be  made  from  two-by-two-inch  stuff, 
rounded  on  the  upper  edges;  they  should  be  placed  about 
two  and  one-half  feet  from  the  floor.  Eight  inches  below 
the  roosts  should  be  a  removable  board  or  floor  to  catch 
the  droppings. 

Nests. — One  nest  should  be  supplied  for  every  four 
hens.     The  nests  may  be  built  in  a  series  along  the  side, 


366 


AGRICULTURE 


just  under  the  eaves  if  these  are  not  too  high.  Hens  lay 
best  in  a  secluded  place.  The  nests  should  therefore  be 
covered,  and  sufficiently  enclosed  to  make  them  partially 
dark.  Openings  through  the  outer  wall  large  enough  to 
admit  the  hand  into  the  nests  will  allow  the  gathering  of 
the  eggs  without  entering  the  building.  Care  must  be 
taken,  however,  to  provide  a  way  to  close  these  holes  so 
that  drafts  may  not  strike  the  nests. 


Colony  houses  and  runs  for  ducks. 


Colony  houses. — Colony  houses  are  small  buildings 
intended  for  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  fowls,  and  are 
movable.  They  may  be  constructed  on  the  same  plan  as  the 
larger  building,  and  are  placed  on  sills  or  runners  so  that 
that  may  be  dragged  from  place  to  place  with  a  team. 
Poultrymen  who  use  colony  houses  move  them. frequently, 
thus  securing  better  hygienic  conditions.  The  colony  house 
is  especially  desirable  for  hens  with  broods  of  chickens. 
Many  large  poultry  raisers  use  both  the  permanent  building 
and  the  colony  house  for  their  flocks. 


POULTRY  Z(i7 

8.    Poultry  Diseases 

The  poultryman's  aim  should  be  to  prevent  diseases 
rather  than  cure  them  in  his  flock.  For  a  fowl  sick  with 
any  serious  disease  is  hard  to  treat,  and  should  usually  be 
killed  at  once  to  save  time  in  caring  for  it  and  the  danger 
of  infecting  others. 

Sanitation  in  the  poultry  yard. — Chickens  are  subject 
to  a  number  of  diseases  that  depend  chiefly  on  lack  of 
cleanliness  around  the  premises.  *  Lice  and  various  para- 
sitic mites  attack  little  chicks  or  older  fowls  alike.  Fre- 
quent whitewashing  of  the  poultry  house,  washing  the  roosts 
with  kerosene,  and  spraying  with  kerosene  emulsion  such 
as  is  used  for  fruit  trees,  are  some  of  the  preventatives  for 
these  pests. 

A  simple  and  effective  lice  powder  is  made  of  one  pint  of 
tobacco  dust  mixed  with  two  quarts  of  fine  road  dust.  Sul- 
phur may  be  used  in  place  of  the  tobacco  dust,  and  finely 
sifted  hard  coal  ashes  in  place  of  the  road  dust.  The  soil  of  a 
poultry  yard  should  occasionally  be  sprayed  with  kerosene 
emulsion,  or  coated  with  whitewash  after  all  refuse  has 
been  removed.  If  the  ground  is  plowed  or  spaded  late  in 
the  fall  and  allowed  to  freeze  during  the  winter  many  para- 
sites and  disease  germs  will  be  destroyed. 

White  diarrhea. — This  is  a  disease  affecting  young 
chicks  within  the  first  four  days  of  their  life.  They  are 
most  subject  to  attack  the  first  twenty- four  hours,  and  im- 
mune after  ninety-six  hours.  The  disease  is  caused  by  a 
bacterium  found  in  the  egg  laid  by  a  hen  that  carries  the 
germs  in  her  body.  It  may  also  be  caught  by  contagion 
from  chicks  that  have  the  disease,  or  from  contact  with  in- 
cubators where  the  germs  have  lodged.  There  is  no  suc- 
cessful remedy.  A  good  measure  of  prevention  is  to  keep 
incubators,  brooders  and  all  feeding  utensils  disinfected. 


368  AGRICULTURE 

fr  Gapes. — Gapes  is  another  disease  attacking  young 
chicks.  It  is  caused  by  a  small  worm  picked  up  from  the 
soil.  The  worms  attach  themselves  to  the  inner  walls  of 
the  windpipe,  where  they  draw  their  food  from  the  blood 
of  the  chick,  thereby  weakening  it,  and  also  clogging  the 
passage  so  that  the  chick  gasps  for  breath. 

Here  again  prevention  is  a  question  of  sanitation.  If 
the  soil  is  free  of  the  worms,  there  will  be  no  gapes  in  the 
chickens.  It  is  well,  therefore,  to  keep  the  young  chicks 
on  clean  new  ground  on  which  former  broods  have  not  been 
raised. 

Cholera. — Several  different  kinds  of  germs  commonly 
found  in  the  intestines  of  chickens  may,  under  certain  con- 
ditions, cause  diseases  known  as  cholera.  True  chicken 
cholera  is  caused  only  by  one  particular  germ,  however. 
Cholera  is  contracted  by  contact  with  fowls  sick  with  the 
disease,  by  germs  carried  by  new  birds  brought  into  the 
flock,  by  germs  brought  by  wild  birds  that  alight  in  the  poul- 
try yard,  or  dogs  or  other  animals  that  roam  from  place 
to  place. 

It  does  not  pay  to  try  to  cure  fowls  that  have  contracted 
the  disease.  It  is  best  to  kill  them  at  once,  burning  or 
deeply  burying  the  bodies.  Care  should  all  center  on  pre- 
vention. First  of  all,  the  flock  must  have  sanitary  sur- 
roundings— good  air,  sunshine,  quarters  that  are  dry  and 
clean,  and  should  have  suitable  food. 

The  poultry  house  and  yard  must  be  frequently  disin- 
fected. New  fowls  brought  into  the  flock  must  be  kept  by 
themselves  for  a  week  to  make  sure  they  do  not  carry  in- 
fection. Stray  animals  should  be  shut  from  the  chicken 
yard.  The  careful  following  of  these  simple  precautions 
will  greatly  lessen  the  danger  from  chicken  cholera. 

Roup. — This  is  but  another  name  for  a  kind  of  con- 
tagious catarrh  among  poultry  which  closely  resembles  in- 


POULTRY 


369 


fluenza,  or  grippe,  in  man.    Roup  is  thought  to  be  contracted 
only  by  contact  with  infected  birds.     It  attacks  the  mem- 


'^pdB 


eu&r  ^^ 


The  parts  of  a  chicken. 


branes  of  the  eye,  mouth  and  throat,  causing  inflammation 
and  a  sticky  discharge.  The  disease  is  accompanied  by 
high  fever.    Roup  may  be  brought  into  the  flock  by  newly 


370  AGRICULTURE 

f"  purchased  birds,  by  fowls  that  have  been  taken  to  poultry 
shows,  or  by  pigeons  or  other  wild  birds. 

Roup  is  one  of  few  poultry  diseases  that  may  be  suc- 
cessfully treated.  The  sick  fowl  should  be  separated  from 
the  flock  and  given  a  warm,  dry,  well-ventilated  place.  All 
the  affected  parts  should  be  washed  with  some  antiseptic 
mixture.  This  may  be  done  with  a  spray,  or  by  plunging 
the  head  into  the  liquid  wash.  The  following  are  suitable 
washes : 

1.  Boric  acid,  1  ounce;  water,  1  quart,  or 

2.  Permanganate  of  potash,  1  dram;  water,  1  quart,  or 

3.  Peroxide  or  hydrogen  1  ounce;  water,  3  ounces. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Taking  into  account  both  what  the  chickens  on  your 
farm  are  fed  and  what  they  pick  up,  make  a  list  of  what 
goes  into  the  ration  of  your  flock.  Compare  with  the  ra- 
tions given  in  the  chapter.  Is  any  element  lacking  in  what 
your  chickens  are  getting? 

2.  Estimate  as  carefully  as  you  can  the  value  of  the 
feed  given  your  chickens  in  one  year;  now  estimate  the 
value  of  the  eggs  and  meat  yielded  by  your  flock.  What 
do  you  conclude  ?  Would  it  pay  to  keep  a  strict  account  of 
the  expense  and  income  of  your  flock  for  several  months  or 
a  year,  so  you  would  know  how  you  are  coming  out? 

3.  Estimate  as  closely  as  you  can  the  number  of  eggs 
produced  in  a  year  by  your  flock.  How  many  eggs  does 
this  average  per  hen?    Is  this  a  good  average? 

4.  If  the  average  egg  production  from  your  flock  is 
low,  what  is  the  cause:  breed,  age,  care,  or  feeding?  What 
would  need  to  be  done  to  improve  the  record  ?  How  many 
hens  have  you  more  than  two  years  old? 

5.  Suppose  you  have  for  market  fifty  chickens  that, 
without  special  fattening,  will  average  five  pounds  each, 
and  will  bring  ten  cents  a  pound.  Now  also  suppose  that 
by  two  weeks  of  crate  or  close-yard  feeding  you  can  in- 
crease the  average  weight  one  pound  for  each  bird,  and  get 


POULTRY  371 

fifteen  cents  a  pound  for  the  lot.  If  the  feed  used  is  .just 
balanced  by  the  increase  in  weight,  what  would  be  the  gain 
from  fattening? 

6.  Select  several  fertile  and  several  infertile  eggs,  and 
place  them  where  they  will  keep  at  a  temperature  of  eighty 
to  ninety  degrees ;  examine  with  the  candler  after  twenty- 
four  hours ;  after  forty-eight  hours ;  after  seventy-two 
hours;  after  ninety-six  hours.  What  do  you  conclude  as 
to  the  keeping  qualities  of  fertile  eggs,  and  of  infertile 
eggs  ? 

7.  Make  a  drawing  of  your  farm  poultry  house,  show- 
ing all  doors,  windows,  roosts,  dropping  boards,  nests,  etc. 
How  does  the  building  compare  with  the  requirements  given 
in  the  chapter?    What  needs  to  be  done? 

8.  Talk  with  your  father  and  mother  about  allowing 
you  to  take  charge  of  a  part  or  all  of  the  chickens  for  a 
season,  sharing  the  income.  Then  study  all  the  helps  you 
can  find,  and  make  a  record  for  yourself  and  high  profits 
for  both. 

9.  Show  proper  methods  of  keeping  poultry  records. 
Include  in  the  items,  cost  of  labor,  feed,  marketing,  parcel- 
post  cases,  egg  production,  receipts  from  spring  settings 
of  eggs,  cold  storage  costs,  and  poultry  equipment. 

10.  Show  on  the  map  of  the  United  States  the  poultry 
sections,  and  indicate  the  poultry  production  both  in  number 
of  poultry  of  various  kinds  and  the  egg  production,  as 
shown  in  the  last  census  report. 

9.     Poultry  Demonstrations 

"  1.  Demonstrate  how  to  make  equipment  of  various 
kinds,  such  as  water  and  feeding  troughs,  colony  house,  trap 
nests. 

2.  Demonstrate  how  to  test  eggs  by  candling,  using 
a  pasteboard  box  and  a  lamp. 

3.  How  to  pack  eggs  to  ship  by  parcel-post  and  for 
cold  storage. 

4.  How  to  operate  an  incubator. 

5.  How  to  handle  a  sitting  hen. 


372  AGRICULTURE 

10.    Poultry  Play  Contests 

1.  Egg  race,  conducted  on  the   same  plan  as  potato 
race. 

2.  Poultry  judging  contests.    Use  score-card. 

3.  Egg  scoring  contest.    Use  commercial  score-card. 

4.  Breed  variety  naming  contest. 

5.  Drawing  contest.     In  this  contest  all  kinds  of  equip- 


A  Minnesota  club  boy  with  his  flock  and  colony  house. 

ment,  different  breeds  of  poultry,  poultry  houses,  runs,  etc., 
may  be  used  as  a  basis. 

11.     Poultry  Club  Project 

One  of  the  most  interesting  club  projects  to  be  under- 
taken by  the  boys  and  girls  is  the  poultry  club  work.  The 
project  may  start  with  a  setting  of  fifteen  eggs,  or  the  man- 
agement of  a  pen  of  chickens  consisting  of  seven  pullets  and 
one  cockerel  for  a  season  or  a  year. 


POULTRY         '  373 

A  four-year  project. — ^The  poultry  club  work  should 
include,  if  possible,  a  four-year  project  in  order  to  encour- 
age the  use  of  the  first  year's  results  to  the  greatest  possi- 
ble advantage.  The  second  year  club  members  should  raise 
at  least  fifteen  pure-bred  pullets  and  two  cockerels,  and 
hatch  at  least  three  settings  of  eggs  from  the  fifteen  pullets. 
The  third  year  the  project  should  be  based  on  twenty-five 
pullets  and  two  cockerels  and  the  hatching  of  at  least  five 
settings  of  eggs.  The  fourth  year,  fifty  pullets  and  three 
cockerels  and  the  hatching  of  at  least  six  settings  of  eggs. 

Exhibit  and  award. — For  the  first  year  club  members 
must  agree  to  exhibit  one  dozen  eggs  from  the  club  poultry 
and  a  pen  of  at  least  five  chickens — four  pullets  and  one 
cockerel — and  each  subsequent  year,  two  dozen  eggs  and  a 
pen  of  at  least  four  pullets  and  one  cockerel  at  the  state,  dis- 
trict or  county  fair.  The  basis  of  award  for  each  succeed- 
ing year  may  be  as  follows : 

1.  Number  hatched  (1  point  to  each  egg  in  first  course,  or 

1  point  for  3  chicks  in  second  course) 15 

2.  Number  of  live  chicks  at  end  of  10  weeks   (1  point  for 

each  chick  in  first  course,  or  1  point  for  3  chicks  in  sec- 
ond course) 15 

3.  Number   of   cockerels  marketed,   at months    of  age; 

number ;  weight ;  value,  $ 10 

4.  Number  of  birds  remaining  and  total  weight  of  birds 15 

5.  Profit  on  investment   (total  value  at  local  market  price, 

less  cost  of  feed,  setting  of  eggs,  labor  and  equipment)  15 

6.  Score-card   applied   to   birds   with   reference    to    quality, 

breed,  condition  and  vitality 15 

7.  Equipment :    character   of   lot,   pens,    fence,    feeding  and 

housing,  roost,  light,  runs,  etc 15 

Total  score 100 

It  is  recommended  that  whenever  possible  a  pen  of 
chickens  be  kept  on  the  school  grounds  as  property  of  the 
school,  and  turned  over  to  the  care  of  certain  club  mem- 
bers during  the  summer  vacation  period. 


PART  V.    FARM  ECONOMICS 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
FARM  AND  HOME  MANAGEMENT 

FARMING,  like  banking  or  running  a  railroad,  requires 
good  business  management.  Not  hard  work  alone,  but 
careful  planning  is  necessary  to  success.  Brains  are  com- 
ing to  be  quite  as  essential  as  muscle  on  a  modern  farm. 

1.     Planning  the  Farm  and  Its  Work 

In  Europe,  land  is  high  and  labor  cheap;  in  the  United 
States,  land  is  comparatively  cheap  and  labor  expensive. 
The  first  principle  for  the  American  farmer  therefore  is 
so  to  select  his  farm  and  its  enterprises  as  to  make  the  best 
possible  use  of  the  labor  available  upon  it.  This  is  to  say 
that  the  work  should  be  so  diversified  as  to  give  the  largest 
possible  number  of  working  days  during  the  year  to  the 
family,  hired  help,  teams  and  machinery.  Idleness  soon 
eats  up  the  profits  of  labor,  whether  it  be  man,  beast  or 
machine  that  is  idle. 

Selecting  and  planning  the  farm. — The  farm  should 
be  carefully  selected  with  reference  (1)  to  its  soil;  (2)  its 
adaptability  to  the  enterprises  to  be  entered  into,  such  as 
stock  raising  or  cropping;  (3)  its  nearness  to  markets, 
school,  church  and  neighbors ;  (4)  the  length  of  season  and 
375 


376  AGRICULTURE 


favorable  climate;  (5)  its  general  suitability  for  being  made 
into  a  pleasant  and  profitable  homestead  where  an  attractive 
home  can  be  established. 

The  equipment. — With  the  nature  of  the  farm  enter- 
prises in  mind,  the  buildings,  fences,  divisions  of  fields 
and  all  other  improvements  should  be  planned  with  great 
care  to  fit  into  the  general  project.  The  machinery  should 
be  adapted  to  the  soil  and  the  crops  and  should  receive 
the  best  of  care.     Too  much  machinery  means  too  large 


It  pays  to  build  good  fences. 

an  investment,  and  too  little  means  poor  farming  and  loss 
of  labor. 

Crops  and  animals. — Many  farmers  are  wearing  out 
their  soil  and  obtaining  poor  crops  because  of  lack  of  suf- 
ficiently diversified  farming.  They  do  not  manage  well  if 
they  neglect  to  include  in  their  system  the  legumes,  orchard, 
garden  and  wood-lot  products,  or  other  crops  adapted  to 
their  locality.  Or,  perhaps  certain  crops  are  raised  or  ani- 
mals kept  even  at  an  actual  loss,  thus  neutralizing  the 
profits  on  other  crops  or  animals.  This  all  suggests  the 
need  of  better  management  on  such  farms. 


FARM  AND  HOME  MANAGEMENT  Z77 

2.    Administration  of  the  Farm 

The  general  tendency  among  American  farmers  is  to  in- 
troduce the  handHng  of  too  many  enterprises  and  the  culti- 
vation of  too  much  land.  Our  farms  are  larger  than  those 
of  any  other  country,  and  the  amount  produced  per  acre 
less:  than  in  most  other  countries. 

Planning  to  get  the  most  out  of  labor  and  soil. — Good 
administration  gets  the  most  out  of  every  day  of  labor  and 
out  of  every  acre  of  land.  Each  piece  of  work  is  carefully 
planned.  Fields  are  tilled  and  crops  harvested  at  the  right 
time.  A  faulty  machine  is  repaired  before  it  breaks  down. 
Unprofitable  cows  and  horses  are  disposed  of  and  not  kept 
at  a  loss.  '  Fertilizers  are  used  whenever  they  will  pay.  Gar- 
dens and  orchards  are  sprayed  when  necessary.  No  poor 
seed  is  ever  planted.  Herds  and  flocks  are  kept  in  good 
health  by  care  and  sanitary  conditions.  The  home  is  com- 
fortable, convenient  and  well  equipped.  Members  of  the 
family  are  given  opportunity  for  recreation  and  amusement 
as  a  rest  from  labor. 

Farm  bookkeeping. — Every  enterprising  farmer 
should  keep  a  system  of  records  or  book  accounts.  These 
need  not  be  elaborate,  but  they  must  be  accurate.  Without 
this  it  is  impossible  to  determine  the  sources  of  profits  or 
losses,  and  hence  impossible  to  manage  crops  or  stock  in- 
telligently. 

A  system  of  book  accounts  will  show  whether  the  farm 
is  returning  to  the  owner  fair  wages  and  reasonable  inter- 
est on  the  investment,  A  farmer  who  can  make  average 
day  wages,  and  in  addition  five  per  cent,  interest  on  the 
money  invested,  is  ranked  as  a  good  farmer.  Many  make 
much  more  than  this,  while  others  make  less. 

The  set  of  farm  books  should  show  an  inventory  at  the 
beginning  of  the  year  of  all  stock,  grain,  roughage  and 
the  like  on  hand.     At  the  end  of  the  vear  another  inven- 


Good  machinery  is  a  profitable  investment. 


r.y  ^feyfl .  ,±  ***^"'*!!Si« 


u:-' 


Well-arruuged  cattle  yards. 


"    FARM  AND  HOME  MANAGEMENT  379 

tory,  with  an  itemized  cash  record,  one  list  of  bills  owed 
others,  and  another  list  of  bills  due  from  others  will  serve 
the  purpose  very  well  on  the  average  farm. 

Marketing  farm  products. — Farmers  find  that  it  pays 
well  to  give  careful  attention  to  the  grading,  crating  and 
standardizing  of  farm  products  for  the  market.  It  is  good 
business  as  well  as  a  matter  of  pride  to  establish  a  uniformity 
of  standard,  using  a  particular  type  of  box,  crate  or  parcel- 
post  pack  marked  with  the  owner's  special  label  or  trade 
mark.  Merchants,  packers  or  customers  will  soon  show 
their  appreciation  of  a  standard  product  by  being  willing 
to  pay  more  for  it  than  for  ungraded  products. 

The  farmer's  need  of  information. — Intelligent  hand- 
ling of  farm  business  requires  that  the  farmer  should  be 
thoroughly  abreast  of  the  times  in  information.  He  will 
need  a  daily  paper  giving  market  quotations  and  crop  re- 
ports. He  should  also  be  familiar  with  the  best  farm  jour- 
nals, a  few  standard  books  on  agriculture,  and  the  bulletins 
and  circulars  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture and  his  state  college  of  agriculture  and  by  means  of 
these  be  able  to  obtain  much  of  daily  value  for  all  farm 
enterprises. 

Ten  important  points  in  farm  administration. — Doctor 
\V.  J.  Spillman,  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, gives  the  following  factors  as  underlying  success- 
ful farming: 

1.  Low  real  estate  prices  for  the  land  cultivated. 

2.  Production  of  commodities  for  which  the  supply  is  less 

than  the  demand. 

3.  Management  of  the  business  on  as  large  a  scale  as  capi- 

tal and  managerial  ability  will  permit. 

4.  Production  of  commodities  of  the  highest  quality. 

5.  A  reputation  for  reliability. 

6.  Location  for  good  markets,  and  ability  to  buy  and  sell 

profitably. 


380 


AGRICULTURE 


7.  Keeping  only  animals  of  highest  productive  capacity. 

8.  Large  yields  with  relatively  little  labor  and  fertilizer. 


A  kltcbeu  cabinet  and  young  house  mistress. 


9.     Production  at  low  cost. 
10.     Production  of  staple  commodities  for  permanent  profits. 


,    FARM  AND  HOME  MANAGEMENT  381 

The  following  ten  commandments  for  southern 
agriculture,  as  taught  by  the  late  Doctor  Seaman  A. 
Knapp,  will  be  of  value  to  all  who  are  interested  in 
southern  farm  management. 

TEN   COMMANDMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

"At  an  early  period  it  was  found  necessary  to 
evolve  from  the  mass  of  ethical  teaching  a  few  gen- 
eral rules  for  living,  called  The  Ten  Commandments, 
by  which  a  man  could  be  moral  without  going 
through  a  course  of  theology.  Just  so,  in  order  to  in- 
struct the  average  farmer  how  successfully  to  con- 
duct his  farm  operations  so  as  to  secure  a  greater  net 
gain  from  the  farm,  it  is  necessary  first  to  deduce 
from  the  mass  of  agricultural  teachings  a  few  general 
rules  of  procedure.  They  are  called  The  Ten  Com- 
mandments of  Agriculture,  by  the  practice  of  which  a 
man  may  be  a  good  farmer  in  any  State  without  being 
a  graduate  from  a  college  of  agriculture." 

1.  Prepare  a  deep  and  thoroughly  pulverized  seed 
bed,  well  drained ;  break  in  the  fall  to  the  depth  of 
eight,  ten  or  twelve  inches,  according  to  the  soil  with 
implements  that  will  not  bring  too  much  of  the  subsoil 
to  the  surface  (the  foregoing  depths  should  be  reached 
gradually) . 

2.  Use  seed  of  the  best  variety,  intelligently  se- 
lected and  carefully  stored. 

3.  In  cultivated  crops,  give  the  rows  and  the 
plants  in  the  rows  a  space  suited  to  the  plant,  the 
soil  and  the  climate. 

4.  Use  intensive  tillage  during  the  growing  per- 
iod of  the  crops. 


382  AGRICULTURE 

5.  Secure  a  high  content  of  humus  in  the  soil  by 
the  use  of  legumes,  barnyard  manure,  farm  refuse,  and 
commercial  fertilizers. 

6.  Carry  out  a  systematic  crop  rotation  with  a 
winter  cover  crop  on  southern  farms. 

7.  Accomplish  more  work  in  a  day  by  using  more 
horse  power  and  better  implements. 

8.  Increase  the  farm  stock  to  the  extent  of  utiliz- 
ing all  the  waste  products  and  idle  lands  of  the  farm. 

9.  Produce  all  the  food  required  for  the  men  and 
animals  on  the  farm. 

10.  Keep  an  account  of  each  farm  product,  in 
order  to  know  from  which  the  gain  or  loss  arises. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Name  all  the  different  enterprises  on  your  home 
farm. 

2.  What  is  meant  by  seasonal  distribution  of  labor? 
Name  some  of  the  things  that  a  farmer  and  his  men  can 
do  on  rainy  days  in  the  summer  and  on  stormy  days  in  the 
winter. 

3.  Make  an  inventory  of  your  farm  supplies  at  the 
present  time,  such  as  stock,  machinery,  grain,  hay,  etc. 
Make  a  list  of  purchases  in  these  lines  during  the  last  year. 
Make  a  list  of  the  sales.  Talk  with  your  father  about  keep- 
ing under  his  direction  a  set  of  farm  records  for  a  year. 

4.  Choose  some  farm  in  the  neighborhood  and,  under 
the  teacher's  direction,  make  a  plan  for  reorganizing  its 
management  as  to  cropping,  stock,  machinery,  buildings, 
drainage,  laying  oflf  of  fields,  fencing,  etc.,  with  a  view  to 
better  results. 

3.     The  Farm  Home 

Successful  farming  must  make  the  home  the  center  of 
all  interest  and  effort.  The  final  purpose  of  increasing  the 
fertility  of  the  soil,  raising  good  crops,  and  producing  fine 


A  hand  separator. 


384  AGRICULTURE 

*  herds  and  flocks  is  to  make  a  better  Jiome  thereby.  Little 
is  gained  by  makiiig  more  money,  buying  more  land  and 
raising  more  stock  if  the  home  is  not  made  to  share  in  the 
prosperity. 

The  farmhouse. — ^The  farmhouse  should  be  comfort- 
able and  attractive.  There  is  little  excuse  in  this  day  for 
building  houses  that  are  ugly  and  repellent;  for  even  mod- 
erate priced  buildings  can  be  planned  to  look  well  and  at 
the  same  time  be  convenient  and  homelike.  The  home, 
whether  large  or  small,  should  be  one  in  which  every  mem- 
ber takes  pride,  and  where  happiness  and  contentment  may 
reign. 

Plan  and  equipment. — The  farmhouse  should  be 
planned  for  convenience.  For  there  is  much  hard  work  to 
be  done  by  the  housewife,  and  every  care  should  be  taken 
to  save  her  time  and  strength.  A  well  organized  kitchen, 
with  running  water,  a  good  sink  with  drainage,  a  movable 
kitchen  cabinet,  plenty  of  table  space,  cupboards,  oil  or 
gas  heater  for  summer  use,  and  a  fireless  cooker,  is  one  of 
the  first  requirements  in  planning  a  house. 

Practical  conveniences. — ^The  farm  home  should  have 
a  well  lighted  basement  with  cement  floor,  a  fully  equipped 
laundry  with  water-pipes  and  stationary  tubs  connected 
with  a  drain,  to  save  the  lifting  and  carrying  of  water. 
Suitable  vegetable  bins  should  be  provided  and  so  arranged 
that  they  may  be  cooled  from  the  outside.  A  bathroom  is  a 
practical  necessity  on  the  farm  as  ■.veil  as  city  home  and  can 
be  supplied  with  water  from  an  elevated  windmill  or  cistern 
tank.  A  toilet  and  lavatory  should  also  be  a  part  of  this 
equipment.  The  telephone  now  belongs  to  the  farm  as 
much  as  to  the  town,  and  electric  lighting  and  power,  even, 
are  now  being  made  available  to  many  farms  through  the 
extension  of  trolley  lines.  All  these  things  can  bie  had  with- 


FARM  AND  HOME  MANAGEMENT 


385 


out  great  cost.     They  require  chiefly  a  spirit  of  enterprise 
and  a  little  careful  planning. 

Labor-saving  devices. — The  wise  farmer  buys  good 
machinery  to  till  his  land  and  harvest  his  crops.  His  wife 
should  also  have  the  advantage  of  modern  labor-saving  de- 
vices in  her  work.    The  best  of  cooking  utensils,  fruit  and 


A  fine  bomestead,  but  lacking  in  trees. 


vegetable  canning  outfits,  automatically  heated  flat  irons, 
cleaning  devices,  hardwood  floors,  rugs  and  other  similar 
helps  to  good  housekeeping  should  not  be  wanting.  For  such 
equipment  now  belongs  in  every  modern  home,  and  will 
save  much  time  and  drudgery. 

Recreation  and  culture. — Most  farm  homes  can  afford 
a  supply  of  good  books  and  magazines.  These  lead  both 
to  education  and  enjoyment.  Good  pictures  and  well  deco- 
rated rooms  also  add  much  to  the  home  spirit.  Musical  in- 
struments are  within  the  reach  of  thousands  of  farm  homes, 


386  AGRICULTURE 

and  prove  one  of  the  best  of  investments.  Many  interesting 
games  can  also  be  had  at  Httle  cost.  < 

The  back  yard. — The  back  yard  should  be  quite  as 
clean  and  attractive  as  the  front  yard.  No  refuse  or  litter, 
chicken  coops,  garbage  heaps  or  mud-holes  should  be  tol- 
erated. Closed  garbage  cans  should  be  used,  and  every- 
thing done  away  with  that  will  attract  flies  or  mosquitoes, 
or  be  the  breeding  place  for  disease  germs. 

Drainage. — No  farm  house  is  complete  without  a 
drain  leading  out  through  the  basement  and  on  to  a  cess- 
pool some  distance  from  the  house.  Cesspools  can  be  con- 
structed at  almost  no  expense  except  for  the  labor,  and  so 
made  as  not  to  endanger  wells  in  the  vicinity. 

4.     Other  Farm  Buildings 

Much  time  and  labor  can  be  saved  by  a  proper  arrange- 
ment and  placing  of  farm  buildings.  While  barns  should 
not  be  located  too  near  the  house,  neither  should  they  be 
so  far  away  to  cause  unnecessary  steps  in  going  back  and 
forth. 

Making  a  plan. — Before  barns,  poultry  houses,  hog- 
houses  or  corn  cribs  are  erected  a  plan  for  the  whole  system 
of  buildings  likely  to  be  needed  should  be  made.  The  dis- 
tance of  carrying  feed,  water  and  milk  should  be  care- 
fully considered,  and  all  other  conditions  taken  into  account 
in  placing  the  structures.  The  buildings  themselves  should 
be  planned  with  the  greatest  convenience  and  economy  of 
labor  in  view. 

Barnyards. — The  appearance  of  a  barnyard  is  one  of 
the  best  tests  of  a  good  farmer.  The  yard  should,  first  of 
all,  be  clean  and  free  from  filth.  All  low  places  that  col- 
lect pools  of  water  should  be  filled.  Manure  should  be 
cleaned  up  and  spread  on  the  fields.     No  old  machinery. 


FARM  AND  HOME  MANAGEMENT 


387 


piles  of  boards,  and  scraps  of  rubbish  should  litter  the  place. 
The  entire  set  of  farm  buildings,  yards  and  fences  should 
show  taste  and  good  management  and  be  pleasing  to  the 
eye.  To  accomplish  this  does  not  add  materially  to  the 
expense  of  operating  the  farm ;  in  the  long  run  it  does 
not  even  require  more  time  than  to  allow  the  homestead 


Well-kept  barns. 

to  run  at  loose  ends.  A  well  kept  homestead  is  largely  a 
matter  of  thoughtful  planning,  and  a  desire  to  make  the 
farm  home  attractive  as  well  as  profitable. 


Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Make  a  study  of  the  plans  for  several  farm  homes, 
and  discuss  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each  plan, 
finally  selecting  your  favorite  plan. 

2.  Take  a  look  at  your  home  door  yard,  and  decide 
whether  any  improvement  is  necessary.  Do  the  same  for 
your  barnyards.     Is  there  old  machinery  or  rubbish  about 


388  AGRICULTURE 

that  needs  cleaning  up  ?    Are  there  any  fences  or  gates  that 
need  repairing? 

3.  Make  a  plan  of  your  farm  homestead,  locating  all 
of  the  buildings.  Now  suggest  any  rearrangement  that 
would  make  the  homestead  more  convenient  or  attractive. 

4.  Make  a  plan  showing  how  water  could  be  brought 
by  underground  pipes  from  an  elevated  tank  on  your  wind- 
mill or  silo,  (1)  to  the  kitchen  of  your  house,  and  (2)  to 
your  barns.  Also  make  a  drawing  of  a  drain  leading  from 
your  basement  to  a  cesspool ;  show  a  plan  also  of  the  cess- 
pool.   What  is  a  septic  tank? 

5.  Consider  carefully  what  practical  project  you  could 
carry  out  for  the  improvement  either  of  the  appearance  or 
the  convenience  of  your  farm  homestead,  and  talk  with 
your  father  about  undertaking  it.  Show  a  detailed  esti- 
mate of  any  expense  involved,  including  labor. 


CHAPTER  XXV 
THE  HOME  GROUNDS  AND  WOOD  LOT 

NO  home  place  is  complete  without  trees,  plants  and 
shrubs.  Even  with  costly  and  pretentious  buildings,  a 
homestead  may  look  barren  and  inhospitable  from  lack  of 
the  decorative  and  comfortable  effect  of  shade  trees,  groves, 
climbing  vines  and  blossoming  plants.  One  should  learn 
not  only  to  make  his  farm  pay  hut  to  make  it  interesting 
and  attractive. 

1.     Beautifying  the  Home  Grounds 

The  house  lot  and  lawn  of  the  farm  home  can  be  made 
especially  beautiful  and  interesting.  For  there  is  more  room 
on  the  farm  than  in  the  town  or  city,  and  the  trees  and 
plants  needed  for  its  decoration  will  cost  but  little  except  a 
reasonable  amount  of  care.  Well  kept  grounds  add  a  great 
deal  to  the  market  value  of  a  farm,  and  contribute  even 
more  to  the  beauty  and  comfort  of  the  home. 

Plan  for  setting. — To  produce  the  best  results,  the 
setting  of  trees  and  shrubbery  should  follow  some  complete 
and  well  devised  plan.  The  effect  of  the  most  beautiful 
vegetation  may  be  lost  by  careless  or  improper  placing. 
When  used  for  decoration  or  shade,  trees  should  usually 
not  be  set  in  rows,  unless  along  a  driveway  or  boundary 
line ;  nor  should  they  be  so  blocked  together  that  they  shut 
off  the  view  of  the  house.  They  may  stand  as  single  iso- 
lated specimens,  or  in  irregular  groups.     Trees  often  are 

389 


390 


AGRICULTURE 


placed  too  near  the  house,  thus  excluding  the  sun  and  caus- 
ing dampness. 

Shrubs,  likewise,  appear  to  best  advantage  when  set 
in  clumps,  or  irregularly  to  make  a  border  for  the  lawn. 
Climbing  vines  can  be  used  to  screen  porches,  cover  garden 
fences,  hide  unsightly  sheds  and  outbuildings,  or  clamber 
over  stumps,  rocks  or  banks. 

Selecting  varieties. — One  can  select  from  an  almost 


II 

R 

-^ 

,3-..'  !^;-:i  * " 

Mi 

1,      . 

The  shrubs  niul  trees  «dd  much  to  this  farm  home. 


endless  variety  of  trees,  shrubs  and  vines.  Each  variety 
has  its  own  peculiar  individuality,  which  should  be  studied 
and  known  before  the  selection  is  made.  A  plant,  once 
given  a  place  on  the  grounds,  becomes  a  permanent  part 
of  the  home-place,  and  should  therefore  be  chosen  with  as 
much  care  as  are  our  friends. 

Shade  trees  should  be  hardy,  well-shaped,  broad  leafed, 
grow  to  a  good  size,  and  attract  no  troublesome  insects. 
Elms,  maples,  oaks,  ashes,  basswood,  catalpa,  locusts,  nut 


THE  HOME  GROUNDS  AND  WOOD  LOT      391 

and  fruit  trees,  and,  in  the  South,  magnolias,  the  redbud 
and  live  oak,  are  among  the  favorites. 

Shrubs  are  to  be  selected  both  for  their  foliage  and 
flowers.  With  care,  provision  can  be  made  for  the  appear- 
ance of  blossoms  during  each  month  of  the  summer,  and 
for  an  attractive  variety  of  foliage  throughout  the  season. 

Flov^rering  plants. — The  plan  for  the  home  grounds 


A  fine  homestead  manageuieut,  showing  wood  lot,  orchard  and  a 
good  set  of  buildings. 

should  include  a  few  beds  of  flowering  plants.  Most  of 
these  may  be  perennials,  which  will  require  almost  no  care 
after  the  bed  has  become  well  established.  With  the  addi- 
tion of  a  few  varieties  of  hardy  bulbs  for  annual  planting, 
beautiful  effects  can  be  produced  with  practically  no  cost 
and  with  the  expenditure  of  very  little  time. 

The  lawn. — Nothing  adds  more  to  the  appearance  of 
a  homestead  than  a  well  kept  lawn.  The  lawn  should  first 
of  all  be  well  smoothed,  the  low  places  being  filled  and  all 


392  AGRICULTURE 

obstructions  removed.  The  soil  should  be  rich  and  well 
drained.  For  the  greater  part  of  the  United  States,  a  mix- 
ture of  blue-grass  and  red-top,  with  perhaps  a  small  amount 
of  white  clover,  makes  a  good  lawn  covering. 

The  lawn  must  be  close-mown  if  it  is  to  produce  a  pleas- 
ing effect.  If  allowed  to  grow  up,  the  grass  becomes  tufted 
and  coarse,  besides  looking  ragged  and  unkempt.  Farm 
stock  should  not  be  pastured  on  the  lawn.  Their  trampling 
will  produce  unevenness  that  interferes  with  the  lawn- 
mower,  and  plants,  shrubbery  and  young  trees  are  sure  to 
suffer  from  being  browsed. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Draw  a  plan  of  your  home  grounds,  locating  all 
the  trees,  vines  and  shrubs,  and  giving  the  names  of  va- 
rieties. 

2.  In  your  drawing  also  show  the  position,  size  and 
shape  of  all  the  flower  beds,  specifying  the  varieties  of 
plants,  and  whether  annuals  or  perennials. 

3.  Make  a  complete  plan  for  the  decoration  of  your 
home  grounds,  taking  into  account  the  trees,  shrubs,  and 
plants  already  set  out.  What  varieties  should  be  added? 
Are  any  trees  or  shrubs  in  such  positions  that  they  should 
be  removed? 

4.  Make  a  plan  for  decorating  the  school  grounds,  speci- 
fying by  variety  each  tree  and  shrub,  and  showing  its  loca- 
tion. 

2.     The  Farm  Wood  Lot 

Every  farm  place  should  have  its  own  wood  lot.  It 
costs  little  to  start,  requires  almost  no  care  after  the  first 
year  or  two,  and  yields  large  returns. 

Uses  of  the  wood  lot.-^Poles,  timbers  and  posts  are 
constantly  needed  on  every  farm.  When  there  is  no  wood 
lot  to  supply  them,  they  must  either  be  bought,  or  the  farm 
suffer  for  their  lack.  And  lumber,  posts  and  timbers  of 
every  sort  are  becoming  more  expensive  from  year  to  year 


THE  HOME  GROUNDS  AND  WOOD  LOT      393 


as  our  forests  are  being  depleted.  Fire-wood  raised  on  the 
farm  costs  very  much  less  than  if  bought  in  the  market, 
and  so  scarce  is  it  becoming  in  many  regions  that  it  can  not 
be  had  at  all  unless  produced  at  home. 

The  wood  lot  can  often  be  so  placed  as  to  serve  for  a' 


A  good  lot  of  Hampsliire  Dowus  aud  a  fine  wood  lot. 
windbreak  for  the  farm  buildings,  and  at  the  same  time 
add  to  the  beauty  and  value  of  the  homestead.     When  the 
trees  are  grown  they  afford  welcome  shade  for  animals, 
contributing  both  to  their  comfort  and  profit. 

Birds  are  attracted  to  the  wood  lot,  and  from  this  shel- 
ter make  sallies  out  upon  the  harmful  insects  that  prey  on 


394 


AGRICULTURE 


crops  or  gardens.  From  the  friendly  tree-tops  they  also 
pour  out  their  tribute  of  song. 

The  location  and  size  of  the  wood  lot. — It  may  not 
always  be  desirable  to  plant  a  large  wood  lot  near  the  build- 
ings. When  such  is  the  case,  low  wet  places,  steep  hillsides, 
or  small  irregular  pieces  of  ground  not  suitable  for  culti- 
vation can  often  be  utilized. 

From  one-half  an  acre  to  several  acres  of  ground  can 
profitably  be  set  to  trees  on  a  fair-sized  farm.     While  the 


Using  the  wood  lot  for  picnics  and  club  festivals. 


returns  are  not  immediate  as  with  other  crops,  yet  the  profit 
is  reasonably  sure  in  the  end.  Many  far-sighted  farmers 
are  now  providing  for  the  fence  posts  and  timbers  they 
will  need  ten  or  twenty  years  hence  by  setting  out  and 
caring  for  trees  in  a  wood  lot.  It  is  estimated  that  Minne- 
sota farmers  set  out  a  million  trees  in  1913  and  in  many 
other  regions  the  movement  is  quite  as  marked. 

Varieties  of  trees  for  the  wood  lot. — It  is  impossible 
to  recommend  definite  varieties  of  trees  for  the  wood  lot, 


THE  HOME  GROUNDS  AND  WOOD  LOT      395 

since  this  depends  on  the  region  and  the  use  to  be  made  of 
the  timber.  Some  prefer  to  plant  the  faster-growing  soft 
wood  trees,  while  others  are  willing  to  wait  longer  for  the 
harder  woods  to  grow.  An  excellent  plan  is  to  plant  a 
number  of  varieties.  Not  only  will  this  allow  a  mixture  of 
the  slow  and  the  fast  growing  trees,  but  provide  a  variety 
of  timber  suitable  for  different  purposes  of  utility  and  com- 
fort for  the  farm. 

From  the  eastern  to  the  middle  western  states  the  fa- 
vorite trees  seem  to  be  the  different  varieties  of  maple, 
elm,  oak,  locust,  ash,  fir,  basswood,  hickory,  walnut,  box- 
elder,  Cottonwood,  yellow  poplar,  catalpa,  etc. 

In  the  drier  regions  such  as  western  Kansas  and  Ne- 
braska, Oklahoma,  Texas  and  Colorado,  it  is  difficult  to  start 
successfully  some  of  these  varieties.  Among  the  best 
drought  resisting  trees  are  the  black  locust,  green  ash,  Osage 
orange  and  Russian  mulberry.  In  the  southern  and  far 
western  states  practically  all  varieties  suitable  to  the  North 
and  East  can  be  grown  and  many  others  besides. 

Starting  the  wood  lot. — ^The  wood  lot  may  be  started, 
in  the  case  of  most  trees,  either  by  planting  the  seed,  or 
by  setting  out  young  trees.  A  common  method  of  starting 
a  grove  of  hardy  catalpa,  for  example,  is  to  prepare  the 
seed  bed  as  if  for  corn.  Catalpa  seed  is  then  planted,  and 
the  field  cultivated  for  several  years.  The  young  trees  are 
sometimes  cut  back  to  the  ground  after  two  years  of  growth 
for  the  purpose  of  producing  straighter  and  more  sturdy 
trees.  The  growth  of  the  tree  is  not  retarded  by  this 
process. 

A  seed  bed  for  trees  can  easily  be  started,  and  the  trees 
transplanted  to  the  desired  positions  when  the  seedlings  are 
from  one  to  three  years  old.  A  small  seed  bed  will  supply 
trees  for  a  large  wood  lot. 


396  AGRICULTURE 

3.    Tree  Enemies 

While  most  of  the  common  trees  are  not  subject  to  a 
large  number  of  enemies,  yet  they  must  have  reasonable 
care  and  protection  if  they  are  to  thrive. 

Farm  animals. — One  of  the  most  common  mistakes 
in  starting  young  trees  is  to  allow  them  to  be  exposed  to 
stock.  Cattle,  sheep  or  hogs  are  sure  to  injure  the  trees 
by  grazing  upon  the  leaves  and  branches,  by  trampling 
them,  or  by  rubbing  against  them.  The  wood  lot  should 
be  fenced,  and  all  stock  excluded  until  the  trees  are  well 
grown.    Horses  should  never  be  tied  to  trees. 

Weeds  and  sod. — Young  trees  are  as  easily  injured  as 
any  other  plant  by  weeds  or  grass.  Many  people  seem  to 
think  that  because  large  trees  can  take  care  of  themselves 
against  these  enemies  young  trees  can  do  the  same.  But 
trees  once  checked  in  their  growth  by  the  choking  of  weeds 
or  sod  will  never  fully  recover. 

Insect  and  fungous  enemies. — Shade  and  timber  trees 
are,  on  the  whole,  less  subject  to  insect  and  fungous  attacks 
than  fruit  trees.  Yet  occasionally  even  the  most  hardy  trees 
succumb  to  such  enemies.  The  elm,  one  of  the  healthiest 
of  our  trees,  has  recently  suffered  greatly  in  certain  regions. 
The  chestnut  has  also  been  seriously  afflicted  with  a  bark 
disease.  Whole  forests  of  fir  have  died  in  southern  locali- 
ties. Even  the  catalpa  is  subject  to  a  fungous  trouble  at 
certain  stages  of  its  growth.  Whenever  a  considerable 
number  of  trees  in  a  locality  show  signs  of  disease,  an 
expert  should  be  consulted  and  his  directions  followed. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Join  with  the  teacher  and  class  in  making  a  collec- 
tion of  all  the  woods  in  your  locality.  Use  seasoned  woods 
for  specimens  when  possible,  selecting  sticks  two  or  three 


THE  HOME  GROUNDS  AND  WOOD  LOT      397 

inches  in  diameter,  and  sawing  them  about  four  inches 
long.  Split  each  specimen,  then  smooth  and  sandpaper  the 
flat  side  and  ends  and  spread  a  coat  of  shellac  over  the  fin- 


Power  spraying  of  trees. 


ished  parts.     Learn  to  identify  each  specimen  both  by  the 
bark  and  by  the  texture  and  grain. 

2.     Gather  and  preserve  in  wide-mouthed  bottles  samples 


398  AGRICULTURE 

of  the  seeds  of  all  the  trees  in  your  vicinity.  Learn  to 
identify  these  seeds.  Plant  some  of  each,  and  learn  to  iden- 
tify the  young  plant  of  each  variety.  Consider  the  pos- 
sibility of  starting  a  tree  seed  bed  on  the  school  ground, 
where  the  seeds  of  the  different  trees  can  be  planted  and 
seedlings  raised  for  study  or  replanting,  either  on  the  school 
grounds  or  at  the  homes. 

3.  How  can  you  tell  the  age  of  a  tree  after  it  is  cut 
down?  Find  some  freshly  cut  tree  and  discover  its  age. 
Can  you  tell  from  the  annual  rings  any  years  when  the 
tree  did  not  make  a  good  growth? 

4.  Make  a  collection  of  the  leaves  of  all  the  different 
trees  available,  and  learn  to  identify  them. 

5.  What  is  the  difference  between  plain-sawn  and  quar- 
ter-sawn lumber?  Look  at  different  pieces  of  oak  furniture, 
and  decide  whether  the  lumber  was  plain  or  quarter-sawn. 
Why  does  some  hard  pine  flooring  have  a  tendency  to  splin- 
ter up,  while  other  does  not? 

6.  Locate  on  the  map  of  the  United  States  the  forest 
reserves  of  our  country ;  the  lumber  producing  sections. 

7.  Estimate  the  cost  of  producing  a  ten-acre  wood  lot 
of  some  prevailing  trees  of  your  section. 

8.  Write  down  the  names  of  all  the  different  trees 
you  can  think  of  common  to  your  state,  in  the  order  of 
their  importance  to  the  farm. 

4.     Demonstrations  on  Home  Grounds  and  Wood  Lot 

1.  Demonstrate  how  properly  to  remove  and  trans- 
plant a  shrub  or  bush. 

2.  Demonstrate  how  to  make  a  tree  graft ;  how  to  make 
a  bud  graft. 

3.  Demonstrate  how  to  prune  the  different  kinds  of 
trees. 

4.  Show  the  proper  method  of  spraying  for  different 
insects,  diseases  and  blights. 

5.  Show  how  to  treat  the  tree-trunk  to  prevent  insects;! 
from  passing  from  the  ground  into  the  tree. 

6.  Demonstrate  different  methods  of  tree  surgery,  such 


THE  HOME  GROUNDS  AND  WOOD  LOT      399 

as  repairing  injured  limbs  and  diseased  and  decayed  spots. 
How  does  this  compare  with  medical  and  surgical  treat- 
ment of  human  beings  ? 

7.  Demonstrate  how  to  lay  off  a  lawn  with  a  view  to 
artistic  arrangements  for  the  lawn  itself  and  as  related  to 
the  home,  buildings,  pathway  and  roadway. 

8.  Demonstrate  how  to  sharpen  and  set  a  fence  post. 

9.  Show  how  to  set  a  comer  post  and  brace  it. 

10.  Demonstrate  how  to  make  bird  houses,  bird  baths, 
watering  troughs,  feeding  platforms,  etc.,  on  the  lawn  or  in 
the  shrubbery,  trees,  and  out  in  the  wood  lot,  to  encourage 
and  help  the  conservation  of  bird  life. 

5.  Play  Contests  for  Home  Grounds  and  Wood  Lot 
There  can  be  no  "better  way  to  arouse  interest  in  the  im- 
proving of  home  grounds  and  the  planting  and  care  of  wood 
lots  than  to  inaugurate  a  large  number  of  play  contests, 
related  to  this  work.  Practically  all  of  the  demonstrations 
outlined  above  can  be  so  organized  as  to  become  very  inter- 
esting play   contests.      Illustrations: 

1.  Tree  naming  contest. 

2.  Spelling  contest  from  a  list  of  names  of  tiees,  shrubs, 
plants  and  flowers. 

3.  Drawing  contest,  showing  the  plan  and  arrangement 
of  lawns,  wood  lots  and  farm  home  grounds. 

4.  Wood  collection  and  exhibit  contest. 

5.  Manual-training  contests,  in  which  the  pupils  are 
to  contest  in  making  articles  from  wood,  leaves,  bark,  buds 
and  flowers. 

6.  Tree  judging  contest. 

7.  Lawn  mowing  contest,  the  same  to  cover  a  season 
and  to  involve  not  only  the  mowing  of  the  lawn  but  its 
proper  up-keep,  repair  and  improvement. 

8.  Essay  writing  contest  on  the  home  grounds  and 
wood  lot. 

27 


400 


AGRICULTURE 


6.    Home  Grounds  and  Wood  Lot  Club  Projects 

A  number  of  very  interesting  club  projects  can  be  or- 
ganized in  connection  with  the  care  and  management  of 
the  home  grounds,  front  yard,  back  yard,  wood  lot,  trees, 
shrubbery,  etc.  The  basis  of  award  for  these  clubs  will  have 
to  be  modified  to  suit  conditions.  In  general  the  award  may 
be  based  on  the  following  five  points : 

1.  General  plan  and  artistic  arrangement 20 

2.  Management  and  methods    employed   during  the   season  20 

3.  Profit  on  investment  or  results  based  upon  object  of  the 

project    20 

4.  Exhibit  of  products  or  appearance  and  results  shown  at 

close  of  project  period 20 

5.  Written  story  on  "How  I  Did  My  Club  Work" 20 

Total  score 100 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
THE   COUNTY  AGRICULTURAL  AGENT 

TWO  new  agencies  have  recently  entered  the  field  of  ag- 
ricultural education  and  rural  development:  These  are 
(1)  the  county  agricultural  agent,  and  (2)  the  county  farm 
bureau.  The  latter  consists  of  an  organization  of  the  farm- 
ers of  a  county  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  a  kind  of 
clearing  house  for  agricultural  information.  The  county 
agent  is  an  agricultural  leader  whose  business  is  to  organ- 
ize, lead,  instruct  and  give  expert  advice  to  the  farmers 
or  to  pupils  and  teachers  of  agriculture  in  the  schools  of 
the  county. 

1.    The  Work  of  the  County  Agent 

First  work  in  the  South. — The  advent  of  the  boll- 
weevil  in  the  cotton-fields  of  Texas  was  responsible  for 
the  beginning  of  this  work.  So  great  were  its  ravages  that 
in  1906  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  put 
Doctor  S.  A.  Knapp  in  charge  of  demonstration  work  show- 
ing how  the  pest  could  be  exterminated.  From  this  begin- 
ning there  has  been  a  very  rapid  growth  of  this  type  of 
work,  until  at  the  present  time  county  agricultural  agents 
are  scattered  all  over  the  United  States. 

The  county  workers. — Men  employed  as  county  agri- 
cultural agents  are  required  to  be  possessed  of  scientific 
information  on  the  problems  of  agriculture.  They  are  ex- 
pected also  to  have  had  practical  farming  experience.  Plans 
have  already  beerl  made  by  which  the  county  agent  is 
assisted  by  a  woman  agent  who  will  be  thoroughly  trained 

401 


402  AGRICULTURE 

and  fitted  to  advise  and  direct  the  girls  and  women  in  all 
matters  relating  to  the  making  of  better  homes.  Several  hun- 
dred women  agents  are  now  at  work  in  as  many  counties. 

Organization  of  the  county  work. — The  county  agents 
live  in  the  county  and  are  supplied  with  an  office  where 
they  may  be  consulted.  They  usually  are  furnished  with 
some  means  of  transportation  so  that  they  may  travel  about 
the  county,  from  farm  to  farm  and  from  school  to  school. 
In  this  way  the  county  agents  carry  to  the  very  door  of  the 
farm  home  and  the  public  school  the  services  of  specialists. 
They  are  able  to  bring  to  those  who  can  not  go  to  college 
the  help,  advice  and  leadership  of  the  best  scientific  inves- 
tigators, and  really  make  the  farms  a  part  of  the  campus, 
class  rooms  and  laboratories  of  the  agricultural  college  and 
demonstration  centers  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

Character  of  help  rendered. — ^The  work  of  the  county 
agents  is  calculated  to  increase  the  profits  of  farming,  and- 
the  comforts  and  efficiency  of  the  farm  home ;  to  aid  in  con- 
serving and  building  up  the  soil ;  and  to  encourage  the  ad- 
vancement of  community  education  and  social  interests. 
Like  the  physician  or  surgeon,  the  county  agents  are  to  be 
called  when  advice,  treatment  or  preventative  measures  are 
needed.  They  plan  for  a  system  of  demonstrations  to  show 
the  best  methods  of  managing  the  soil,  preparing  the  seed 
bed,  selecting  and  caring  for  seed,  management  and  care 
of  farm  animals,  organization  and  care  of  gardens  and 
orchards,  and  the  handling  and  conservation  of  farm  build- 
ings and  machinery. 

If  a  herd  is  stricken  with  tuberculosis,  the  hogs  with 
cholera,  or  the  corn-field  with  cutworms,  the  county  agent 
should  be  notified  and  his  help  secured.  If  he  is  not  able 
directly  to  give  information  and  aid  he  will  know  where 
to  secure  assistance  on  short  notice.     In  like  manner  the 


THE  COUNTY  AGRICULTURAL  AGENT 


403 


county  agent  will  be  of  special  assistance  in  planning  the 
proper  management  of  soils  and  crops  when  the  seasons 
are  too  dry  or  too  wet ;  in  the  best  organization  of  farm 
enterprises ;  and  in  the  management  of  all  of  the  efficiency 
factors  important  to  the  success  of  American  agriculture. 


The  county  agricultural  agent  is  discussing  grain  problems  with 
the  farmers  at  thrashing  time. 


2.     Financial  Support 

The  Smith-Lever  law. — The  county  agent  is  usually 
supported  in  part  by  federal  and  in  part  by  local  funds.  The 
Smith-Lever  law  passed  by  Congress  made  federal  aid  avail- 
able for  every  state  in  the  union  beginning  with  the  year 
1914.  The  entire  amount  appropriated  for  the  first  year 
was  four  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  dollars,  to  be  divided 
equally  among  the  forty-eight  states.  The  appropriation  is 
gradually  to  increase  until  the  federal  government  is  con- 


404  AGRICULTURE 

tributing  some  four  and  one-half  million  dollars  annually  for 
the  encouragement  of  agriculture. 

The  Smith-Lever  law  contemplates  that  the  greater  part 
of  this  immense  fund  shall  be  spent  in  supporting  county 
agricultural  agents,  state  and  district  leaders,  boys'  and  girls' 
club  work,  demonstration  work  in  home  economics,  and 
other  assistance  in  shaping  and  building  up  agricultural 
interests  throughout  the  nation.  The  agricultural  colleges 
and  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  are  to 
cooperate  in  carrying  out  the  provisions  of  the  act. 

Steps  to  be  taken  in  securing  a  county  agent. — The 
matter  of  securing  an  agent  for  a  county  should  first  be 
taken  up  with  the  state  leader,  whose  headquarters  are 
with  the  agricultural  college  of  each  state.  He  is  in  a  po- 
sition to  assist  in  planning  and  conducting  the  campaign  for 
an  agent  and  can  give  information  in  regard  to  available 
sources  of  county,  state  and  federal  funds,  and  the  amount 
of  funds  necessary  properly  to  finance  the  movement.  When 
the  county  is  ready  for  the  appointment  of  an  agent,  the 
state  leader  will  be  able  to  recommend  a  man  qualified  for 
the  work. 

3.     The  County  Agent  and  the  School 

The  county  agents  seek  not  only  to  help  the  farmers 
in  their  immediate  problems,  but  also  to  advance  agricul- 
tural education  in  every  possible  way. 

Help  for  the  school. — Every  agent  desires  to  assist 
the  work  in  agriculture  in  the  schools  of  his  county.  In 
many  instances  the  county  agents  and  the  county  superin- 
tendents plan  and  carry  on  their  work  together.  Teachers 
and  pupils  can  always  feel  free  to  call  on  the  agent  for 
help  or  advice  in  connection  with  any  agricultural  club 
or  individual  project. 

When  it  is  impossible  to  reach  the  agent  for  a  personal 


THE  COUNTY  AGRICULTURAL  AGENT 


405 


interview,  the  telephone  or  mail  can  be  employed.  Pupils 
and  teachers  should  become  acquainted  with  the  agent  per- 
sonally, attend  the  demonstrations  and  public  meetings,  and 
study  the  experiments  and  investigations  he  makes.  Think 
over  carefully  the  work  of  the  farm  and  if  either  you  or 
your  parents  have  problems  that  are  annoying — troubles  of 
any  kind  with  soil,  crops,  or  stock — seek  the  advice  and 
help  of  the  agent  at  once. 


Apple  club  boys  pruning  orchard  under  direction  of  the  county 
agent,   Cortland  County,  New  York. 

Advice  on  club  projects. — Club  projects  should  be 
selected  with  great  care.  The  county  agent  should  be  con- 
sulted as  to  the  best  project  for  the  boys  to  undertake,  and 
the  best  one  for  the  interest  of  the  girls  and  the  home.  All 
of  the  club  projects  outlined  in  this  book  will  be  of  espe- 
cial interest  to  the  county  agricultural  agents  and  they 
will  be  glad  to  give  encouragement  and  assistance  to  the 
work.    They  will  help  plan  also  the  work  of  the  manual- 


406  AGRICULTURE 

training  classes  in  the  rural  and  village  schools  so  that  it 
will  fit  into  the  needs  of  the  farm,  the  garden  and  the 
home. 

Special  programs. — The  county  agent  should  be  in- 
vited to  the  school,  and  especially  in  connection  with  the 
special  programs  of  an  industrial  and  agricultural  nature. 
His  help  can  be  secared  in  the  conducting  of  agricultural 
demonstrations,  the  judging  of  grains,  fruits,  vegetables 
and  stock,  and  the  organization  of  rural  games  and  con- 
tests. His  advice  will  be  valuable  in  determining  the  basis 
of  award  and  the  methods  of  judging  a  contest.  He  should 
also  be  consulted  with  reference  to  suitable  circulars  and 
Farmers'  Bulletins  for  correlation  reading  in  connection 
with  the  agricultural  and  home  economics  studies  of  the 
school. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Have  you  a  county  agricultural  agent  in  your 
county?  If  so,  who,  and  how  long  has  he  served  the 
county?  Where  is  his  office  located?  Who  pays  his  sal- 
ary? 

2.  It  was  estimated  that  in  one  county  the  work 
of  the  agent  increased  the  yield  of  corn  by  five  bushels  an 
acre  in  a  certain  year.  The  county  is  twenty-four  miles 
square  and  eighty  per  cent,  of  the  area  is  under  cultivation. 
Of  that  under  cultivation  forty-five  per  cent,  was  in  corn. 
What  was  the  agent's  help  on  the  corn  crop  worth  to  the 
county,  figuring  corn  at  fifty  cents  a  bushel? 

3.  If  your  county  has  no  agent,  has  the  matter  of  se- 
curing one  been  discussed  ?  Do  you  know  what  steps  would 
have  to  be  taken  to  secure  an  agent?  How  would  the  ex- 
penses have  to  be  met?  If  you  are  not  certain  on  these 
questions  inquire  of  your  state  agricultural  college  or  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

4.  W^iat  farm  projects  in  your  community  need  the 
advice  of  a  county  agent?  Do  you  know  of  land  that  is 
foul  or  run  down?  Pastures  that  are  weedy  or  dying  out? 
Swamps  that  need  drainage?     Orchards  that  do  not  bear 


THE  COUNTY  AGRICULTURAL  AGENT         407 

profitably?  Flocks  or  herds  that  are  not  profitable?  Rav- 
ages of  insects  or  disease  that  cause  severe  loss?  Hogs 
dying  from  cholera? 

5.  On  what  farm  or  garden  project  would  you  espe-< 
cially  like  advice  from  an  agricultural  agent  in  order  to 
make  sure  of  success  the  first  year  ? 

6.  How  much  money  is  available  this  year  from  the 
Smith-Lever  act  for  the  county  agent  and  farm  demonstra- 
tion movement?  Upon  what  conditions  is  this  secured  and 
how  is  it  administered  ?  What  part  of  this  does  your  county 
get?     (Secure  a  copy  of  the  law  from  your  congressman.) 

7.  Does  your  state  college  of  agriculture  have  an  ex- 
tension department?  If  so,  name  the  officers  and  leaders, 
such  as  director  of  extension,  state  agent  in  charge  of  club 
work,  state  agent  in  charge  of  county  agents  and  demon- 
stration work.  (Write  for  its  literature  on  club  and  ex- 
tension work.) 

8.  To  what  extent  do  the  Department  of  Education  and 
the  normal  schools  of  your  state  encourage  agricultural 
and  home  economic  education?  Do  they  have  officials  who 
supervise  this  type  of  work?    If  so,  name  them. 


o 


CHAPTER  XXVII 
•FARM  IMPLEMENTS  AND  MECHANICS 

1.    Importance  of  Implements -and  Tools 

NE  of  the  most  important  and  interesting  phases  of 
agriculture  is  the   study  of   farm   implements,   their 
origin,  history,  utility,  value,  proper  care  and  up-keep. 

Tillage  and  tools. — Good  crops  and  large  profits  usu- 
ally depend  upon  wise  management  and  proper  tillage ;  and 
good  tillage  requires  the  use  of  tools  adapted  to  the  soil, 
the  particular  crops,  and  the  condition  under  which  the 
farming  is  done.  It  is  poor  economy  to  farm  with  unfit 
tools,  or  implements  in  poor  repair.  On  the  other  hand 
it  is  possible  to  have  too  large  an  amount  of  money  in- 
vested in  farm  implements  and  machinery.  A  number  of 
the  larger  farm  machines,  such  as  corn  harvesters,  thrash- 
ing machines  or  shredders,  can  be  owned  cooperatively  in 
a  community  and  made  to  do  the  work  of  four  to  ten  farm- 
ers instead  of  one.  This  will  reduce  both  the  first  cost  and 
the  up-keep. 

The  care  of  machinery. — It  is  generally  considered 
that  a  machine  kept  in  good  repair,  and  well  housed  when 
not  in  use,  will  last  as  long  doing  the  work  of  five  farmers 
as  a  machine  owned  by  a  single  farmer  and  doing  but  one- 
fifth  of  the  work,  if  neglected  and  allowed  to  stand  out- 
of-doors  in  rain,  snow  and  all  kinds  of  weather  when  idle. 
There  is  no  better  test  of  the  progressiveness  and  good 
management  of  a  farm  than  the  way  the  farm  tools  and 
machinery  are  treated. 

408 


A  young  farmer  mechanic  with  a  well-equipped  shop. 


Practical  farm  mechanics. 


410  AGRICULTURE 

2.    The  Farmer  as  a  Mechanic 

Every  farmer  should,  at  least  to  a  degree,  be  a  me- 
chanic. This  is  not  with  a  view  to  manufacturing  imple- 
ments, or  even  to  the  building  of  his  own  barns  and  houses, 
but  to  enable  him  to  keep  the  implements,  barns  and  houses 
constantly  in  good  repair. 

The  farm  work-shop. — A  great  many  dollars  can  be 
saved  on  the  average  farm  if  the  farmer  has  equipped  him- 
self with  a  little  work-shop  and  a  number  of  the  necessary 
repair  tools.  A  loose  bolt,  a  broken  rivet,  a  loosened  board, 
or  a  brace  out  of  position  can  easily  be  repaired  by  a  prac- 
tical farmer,  while  if  it  is  neglected  it  may  result  in  greater 
breakage,  with  the  consequent  loss  of  time  and  money.  A 
large  number  of  minor  pieces  of  farm  equipment,  such  as 
watering  and  feeding  troughs,  feed  racks,  seed  trays,  test 
boxes,  fireless  cookers,  bins,  shelving,  wagon  boxes  and 
hog  racks  can  profitably  be  made  in  the  farm  shop. 

There  are  always  plenty  of  rainy  days  and  occasionally 
periods  of  time  when  the  rush  and  heavy  work  of  the  fields 
have  been  completed  and  an  opportunity  given  for  repair 
work  and  the  making  of  practical  necessities  belonging  to 
the  farm. 

Manual  training  and  the  farm  boy. — A  farmer  boy's 
education  has  no  more  important  part  than  training  in  the 
use  of  farm  tools  and  the  application  of  the  ordinary  me- 
chanical work  needed  about  barns,  fences  and  machines. 
This  phase  of  training  should  be  correlated  with  the  man- 
ual-training courses  in  the  public  school.  The  manual 
training  learned  by  the  fanner  boy  should  relate  to  farm 
needs.  Every  farmer  boy  should  master  the  practical  prin- 
ciples of  painting,  the  mixing  and  use  of  paint,  and  the 
relation  of  color  schemes.  For  the  use  of  paint  not  only 
beautifies,  but  conserves  buildings,  fences  and  machinery. 

The  use  of  cement. — Cement  has  come  to  be  one  of 


A  uioderu  type  of  cow  pen. 


A  deep  tilliug  plow,  with  two  disks. 


412 


AGRICULTURE 


the  most  important  economies  of  a  farm  homestead.  Every 
boy  will  want  to  know  something  about  the  making  of  con- 
crete, and  the  proper  methods  of  mixing  and  surfacing.  He 
should  understand  the  making  of  molds,  the  laying  of  foun- 
dations for  cement  structure,  and  the  application  of  cement 
to  the  construction  of  silos,  water-tanks,  fence  posts, 
bridges,  feeding  floors,  etc. 

3.    Rope  Tying  and  Splicing 

One  of  the  elementary  yet  most  interesting  divisions  of 
farm  mechanics  is  rope  tying  and  splicing.  The  place  of 
the  rope  in  farm  management  is  very  much  the  same  as  the 
relation  of  the  nail  to  the  builder.  Ropes  are  also  widely 
used  in  other  occupations,  and  the  lives  of  many  workmen 
often  depend  on  the  strength  of  a  rope  or  the  security  of  a 
knot. 

The  uses  of  ropes. — Long  before  farm  machinery  was 
invented  or  useful  implements  projected,  rope  tying  and 
splicing  bore  a  very  important  relation  to  the  work  of  agri- 
culture. The  first  harness  was  made  of  rope.  Joints  and 
splicings  were  made  with  rope  long  before  the  day  of  bolts, 
rivets,  and  other  metal  devices  for  the  joining  of  parts  in 
farm  machinery.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  we  have  to-day 
all  manner  of  improved  farm  machinery  we  still  need  the 
convenience  and  economy  made  possible  by  the  use  of  the 
rope. 

Some  knots  useful  on  the  farm. — Some  of  the  prac- 
tical rope  knots  are  as  follows :  the  clove-hitch ;  bowline ; 
never-slip  noose ;  slipknot ;  Beckett  hitch ;  reef-knot,  or 
square  knot,  which  never  slips  but  is  always  easily  untied ; 
the  two  half-hitches  often  used  for  the  halter-hitch;  weav- 
er's knot  for  the  joining  of  small  cords ;  fixed  knot ;  anchor 
bend ;  timber-hitch,  which  can  be  easily  untied  but  never 
slips ;  and  the  carrick-bend  for  joining  ropes. 


Some  useful  knots.     Learn  to  identify  and  tie. 


414 


AGRICULTURE 


Making  the  right  knot. — Different  knots  are  required 
for. different  purposes.  A  simple  knot  that  will  serve  in 
one  use  is  not  adapted  to  another;  knots  that  will  untie 


More  kuots. 

under  certain  conditions  may  be  impossible  to  untie  under 
other  conditions.* 


1.  A  most  interesting  little  book  on  rope  knotting  and 
splicing  is  one  published  by  David  McKay,  Philadelphia.  50 
cents.  A  number  of  the  drawings  here  shown  are  taken  by  per- 
mission of  the    ompany  from  this  set. 


still  more  knots. 


28 


416  AGRICULTURE 

Principles  of  knot  tying. — Certain  principles  apply  to 
the  tying  of  all  knots.  The  efficiency  of  the  knot  does 
not  depend  on  the  number  of  turns  or  hitches,  but  on  the 
position  of  the  "nip."  The  bend  or  hitch  must  be  so  formed 
that  the  part  of  the  rope  under  strain  nips  securely  some 
portion  of  the  knot,  either  against  itself  or  the  object  to 
which  it  is  attached.  The  nip  of  each  different  knot  should 
be  studied. 

Rope  materials. — While  a  large  part  of  our  rope  and 
cordage  is  made  of  hemp,  many  other  materials  are  now 
coming  to  enter  into  their  manufacture.  The  coil  rope  is 
made  from  cocoanut  fiber,  which  is  used  because  it  is  so 
light  and  pliable.  This  rope  is  useful  for  warps,  rocket 
lines,  life-buoy  lines,  nets,  etc.  Manila  grass  is  adapted  to 
the  construction  of  coarse  ropes  and  hawsers  requiring 
great  strength  and  hard  wear,  and  where  tar  can  not  be  used 
on  the  rope. 

Strips  of  hides  are  used  for  ropes  where  great  strength 
and  pliability  with  small  diameter  are  needed.  Cotton  is 
employed  for  ropes  and  cordage  used  for  fancy  work  of 
all  kinds.  Wire  is  used  for  rope  making  whenever  very 
great  strength  is  needed,  as  in  connection  with  dredging 
machinery,  suspension  bridge  cables  and  the  like. 

Rope  making. —  Yarns  are  formed  by  twisting  the 
hemp  right-handed,  while  the  "strands"  are  made  by  twist- 
ing or  laying  up  the  yarns  left-handed,  and  the  rope  by 
laying  it  up  in  strands  right-handed.  Three  small  ropes 
laid  up  left-handed  form  a  cable-laid  rope.  Four-stranded 
ropes  are  laid  round  a  heart.  In  using  hemp  for  rope  mak- 
ing, great  care  should  be  exercised  not  to  twist  the  hemp 
more  than  necessary,  as  this  weakens  the  rope.  A  three- 
stranded  rope  will  bear  a  greater  strain  in  comparison  to  its 
size  than  any  other  rope  of  the  same  material.    This  ac- 


FARM  IMPLEMENTS  AND  MECHANICS        417 

counts  for  the  fact  that  most  of  our  rope  is  made  of  three 
strands.  Cable-laid  and  four-stranded  ropes  are  as  a  rule 
about  one-fifth  weaker. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Make  a  list  of  all  your  farm  machinery  and  esti- 
mate the  value.  Talk  with  your  father  and  determine  the 
annual  expense  of  this  machinery  in  deterioration  and  inter- 
est on  the  investment.  How  is  your  machinery  housed  ?  Is 
it  kept  in  good  repair? 

2.  Make  a  similar  list  of  all  your  shop  tools.  Have  you 
all  that  are  needed  for  the  up-keep  of  your  farm  buildings 
and  machinery? 

3.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  knots  you  have  ever  seen  used 
on  the  farm.  Tie  all  these  knots.  What  other  knots  would 
be  serviceable?  Learn  to  tie  other  useful  knots  from  the 
pictures  shown  in  this  chapter. 

4.  If  you  wanted  to  draw  a  plank  from  the  ground  up 
to  the  gable  window  of  a  barn  by  use  of  a  rope,  what  knot 
would  you  use  ?  Think  of  several  other  such  uses  for  knots 
and  show  the  knots  to  be  employed. 

5.  Make  a  rope  halter  for  a  horse  or  calf.  Show  how 
to  tip  a  halter  rope. 

6.  Locate  on  a  map  of  the  world  the  places  where 
the  different  rope  materials  are  produced.  Make  a  collec- 
tion of  all  the  different  kinds  of  rope  available,  and  tell  of 
what  they  are  made. 

4.    Rope  Play  Contests, 

1.  Knot  naming  contest. 

2.  Rope  judging  contest. 

3.  Knot  tying  and  splicing  contest,  to  see  who  can  tie 
and  name  accurately  the  largest  number  of  rope  knots  in  a 
period  of  ten  minutes.  Cont'fest  to  be  judged  on  skill,  ac- 
curacy and  number  of  knots  tied. 

4.  Rope  spelling  contest,  to  be  conducted  from  the  list 


418  AGRICULTURE 

of  words  used  in  connection  with  rope,  cordage  and  splic- 
ing work,  with  the  object  of  making  pupils  familiar  with 
the  terms. 

5.     Knot  drawing  contest. 

5.     Rope  Club  Projects 

It  is  possible  to  organize  a  group  of  boys  into  a  rope 
dub  with  a  view  to  the  mastery  of  rope  tying,  splicing, 


m^m 

>|rer-  ^ 

Rope  tying  contest: 
minutes. 


36   knots  tied,   nam^d   and  untied  in   6 


cordage  work,  etc.  The  requirements  should  be  to  study 
in  connection  with  geography  the  various  fibers  used,  such 
as  hemp,  cotton  and  cocoanut.  The  method  of  production  of 
the  plants,  a  study  of  uses  of  rope,  and  their  practical  appli- 
cation to  farm  and  home  mechanics  should  be  taken  up.  The 
basis  of  award  of  a  club  project  of  this  sort  may  be  as 
follows : 

1.    Knowledge  of  origin,  development  and  methods  of  manu- 
facture  in   the   rope   industry 20 


FARM  IMPLEMENTS  AND  MECHANICS        419 

2.  Ability  to  name  and  tell  the  use  of  knots  and  splicings 20 

3.  Exhibit  of  knots  and  splicings   named  and  mounted   on 

board.      (Use    quarter-inch    rope.)    20 

4.  Skill  shown  by  actual   test  in  the  tying  and  naming  of 

rope  knots 20 

5.  Written  story  of  "Rope  Tying  and  Splicing  as  Related  to 

Farm   Mechanics"  20 

Total  score 100 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 
ROAD  BUILDING  AND  MAINTENANCE 

GOOD  public  roads  are  a  prime  necessity  to  successful 
agriculture  and  rural  development.     They  add  to  the 
pleasure,  profit  and  convenience  of  the  farm. 

1.    Importance  of  Public  Roads 

There  are  in  the  United  States  about  two  million  two 
hundred  thousand  miles  of  roads.  Of  this  immense  stretch 
of  public  highway,  two  million  miles  are  classed  as  earth 
roads.  This  is  to  say  that  we  have  enough  earth  roads  to 
circle  the  globe  eighty  times  at  the  equator. 

Good  roads  and  prosperity. — A  study  of  history 
shows  that  every  great  and  prosperous  nation  has  built  a 
good  system  of  public  roads,  while  primitive  and  unpro- 
gressive  peoples  are  satisfied  with  poor  roads.  In  our 
own  country  w6  find  the  most  prosperous  and  progressive 
commmiities  are  those  that  are  giving  attention  to  their 
roads. 

Need  for  good  roads. — Because  good  roads  allow  the 
farmer  to  haul  his  produce  to  market  at  a  minimum  of  ex- 
pense in  time  and  energy,  he  can  make  more  profit  out  of 
his  crops  and  stock.  And  the  prosperity  of  the  fanner 
tends  to  increase  the  prosperity  of  all  business  men  and 
lower  the  cost  of  living  to  consumers.  The  success  of  the 
rural  schools  also  depends  much  on  improved  roads.  Es- 
pecially is  this  true  where  the 'schools  are  being  consoli- 
dated and  the  pupils  transported  to  the  school  by  the  dis- 

420 


All  eaitli  road  tliat  iiueds  improving. 


Tlie  same  road  improved. 


422  AGRICULTURE 

trict.  Rural  mail  delivery  and  the  extension  of  the  parcel- 
post  system  further  demand  the  improvement  of  country 
roads.  And,  not  least  important,  the  making  of  country 
life  interesting  and  attractive  rests  in  no  small  degree  on 
good  roads,  for  they  allow  rural  people  easily  to  travel  about 
the  community  for  social  or  business  purposes. 

Growing  movement  for  good  roads. — In  nearly  every 
part  of  the  United  States  there  is  at  present  a  growing 
interest  in  good  roads.  New  laws  are  being  passed  and 
millions  of  money  appropriated  to  improve  our  roads.  Com- 
mercial clubs,  business  concerns  and  other  organizations  are 
working  together  to  encourage  road  building.  And  farm- 
ers are  coming  to  demand  improved  roads  for  teaming  and 
automobiles. 

2.     Types  of  Roads 

Roads  are  generally  considered  under  the  following 
types:  (1)  earth  roads,  (2)  sand  clay  roads,  (3)  gravel 
roads,  (4)  macadam  roads,  (5)  bituminous  macadam  roads, 
(6)  brick  roads,  and  (7)  concrete  roads.  The  discussion 
in  this  chapter  will  be  confined  to  the  earth  roads,  since 
these  are  the  most  necessary  and  practical  study  for  the 
public  schools. 

Earth  roads. — A  chain  is  no  stronger  than  its  weak- 
est link ;  so,  also,  a  road  is  no  better  than  its  poorest  part. 
This  means  that  the  heaviest  load  that  can  be  drawn  over 
a  public  highway  is  the  load  that  can  be  drawn  up  the 
steepest  hill,  through  the  worst  ruts  or  mud-holes,  or  over 
the  deepest  stretch  of  sand.  Hence  the  importance  of  low- 
ering or  going  around  the  hill,  and  eliminating  the  mud- 
holes,  ruts  and  stretches  of  sand. 

3.    The  Location  of  a  Road 

Public  roads  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  located  in 
straight  lines.     In  hilly  or  mountainous  regions,  however, 


Cross  Sacfron  Roman  RQod(Appian  Way) 


Cross  Seci'ion  French  Road (l^omon  MefhixJj, 
previous  fo  ms. 


Cross  Sec  iion  ofTresctj^ueJ  Ricd,  mS. 


CrossSection  Telford  ffoad  IB20 


Cross  Section  Macadam  Read,  ld:i-:. 


Cross  Section  of  Modern  Macac/amfiirjscach.:.ctfsJ/?t!ad 
w  *h  y shaped  fo:jndotior. 


Cross  Section  of  Modern  Macodcim  f^ood. 


Cross-sections  of  dififerent  types  of  roads. 


424 


AGRICULTURE 


this  rule  must  often  give  way  to  avoid  the  dimbing  of  too 
heavy  grades. 

Straightness  and  grade. — To  lift  a  ton  one  foot  high 
requires  two  thousand  foot-tons  of  energy.  On  a  road  sur- 
face requiring  one  hundred  pounds  traction  per  ton,  the 
same  energy  would  roll  the  ton  a  horizontal  distance  of 
twenty  feet.  As  far  as  the  actual  amount  of  energy  used  is 
concerned,  therefore,  to  save  one  foot  of  grade,  or  up-hill 


Earth  road  in  Kansas. 

climb,  the  road  may  be  lengthened  twenty  feet.  Public 
road  grades  should  avoid  a  rise  of  more  than  six  feet  in  a 
distance  of  one  hundred  feet.  The  hills  should  be  cut  down 
and  the  material  used  to  fill  in  the  hollows  or  else  the  road 
relocated  to  go  around  the  hill  and  to  avoid  the  steep  grades. 
The  necessity  o£  sunlight. — Every  road  bed  should 
have  at  least  six  hours  of  sunlight  each  day.  Brush,  trees 
or  hedges  that  interfere  with  this  requirement  should  be 
cleared  away  or  sufficiently  thinned  out.    On  the  other  hand. 


ROAD  BUILDING  AND  MAINTENANCE         425 

suitable  trees,  shrubbery,  grass,  vines  and  flowers  should 
be  encouraged  along  the  roadway,  as  they  add  both  to  the 
beauty  of  the  road  and  the  value  of  farms. 

Drainage, — As  a  rule  the  only  ditches  needed  for  the 
proper  drainage  of  the  road  can  be  made  by  the  road  grader. 
Deeper  ditches  are  necessary  where  the  adjoining  land  is 
low  and  level.  In  the  building  of  culverts  care  should  be 
taken  to  make  them  large  enough  to  handle  the  overflow. 
They  must  also  be  sufficiently  durable  to  resist  the  spring 


Concrete  road  near  Detroit. 

freshets  and  not  be  injured  by  the  maximum  flow  caused 
by  storm  water.  They  should  have  sufficient  slope  so  that 
the  wash  will  keep  them  clean.  All  the  spillways  should 
be  paved,  if  necessary,  and  the  outlet  and  inlet  protected 
by  suitable  head  and  wing  walls. 

4.     The  Construction  of  Earth  Roads 

Shaping  the  road  bed. — Earth  roads  should  not  be 
made  too  wide.  Twenty-four  to  thirty  feet  is  sufficient  un- 
less the  road  is  to  be  macadamized  or  otherwise  permanently 


426  AGRICULTURE 

improved.  All  roads  should  be  properly  crovvvied  or 
rounded  in  order  to  aid  them  in  disposing  quickly  of  sur- 
face water.  An  earth  road  twenty-four  feet  wide  should 
not  be  less  than  six  inches  nor  more  than  twelve  inches 
higher  at  the  center  than  at  each  of  the  borders.  The  total 
fall  from  center  to  side  should  be  about  an  inch  to  the  foot. 
The  work  of  construction. — ^The  earth  roads  can  best 
be  crowned  and  ditched  by  a  reversible  road  grader.  Th< 
use  of  picks,  shovels,  scoops  and  plows  should  be  avoided. 
One  road  machine  with  sufficient  power  and  a  good  opera- 
tor will  do  the  work  of  a  large  number  of  men  and  do  it 
much  better.  Graders  as  a  rule  should  be  used  when  the 
soil  is  damp.  This  will  make  the  soil  pack  well  while  dry- 
ing. If  it  is  worked  when  dry  and  hard  it  takes  more  power 
to  draw  the  machine  and  in  addition  the  dry  earth  and  dust 
will  absorb  and  retain  moisture  and  soon  develop  ruts.  All 
clods,  sod,  weeds  and  vegetable  matter  should  be  removed. 

5.    Maintenance  of  Earth  Roads 

Necessity  of  constant  care. — The  greatest  problem  of 
earth  road  building  is  that  of  maintenance,  and  any  earth 
road  which  carries  a  great  deal  of  traffic  requires  almost 
constant  attention.  Repairs  should  be  made  when  needed. 
A  few  days  spent  upon  the  road  at  different  times  through- 
out the  year  will  accomplish  a  great  deal.  It  is  a  serious 
mistake  to  devote  all  of  the  time  in  road  building  to  a  par- 
ticular season,  leaving  the  road  without  care  the  remainder 
yi  the  year.  Most  communities  need  a  few  men  and  teams 
spending  their  entire  time  in  keeping  roads  in  repair. 

Dragging  earth  roads. — One  of  the  most  useful  de« 
vices  for  the  maintenance  of  public  earth  roads  is  the  split- 
log  drag.  This  works  with  great  efficiency  on  both  earth 
and  gravel   roads.     To  obtain  the  best  results  the  roads 


ROAD  BUILDING  AND  MAINTENANCE 


427 


should  be  dragged  once  each  way  after  every  heavy  rain. 
This  must  be  done  while  the  soil  is  moist  but  not  sticky. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  employ  the  direct  supervision  of 
skilled  engineers  for  the  maintenance  and  repair  of  earth 
and  gravel  roads,  providing  the  rules  and  suggestions  they 
lay  down  are  carefully  and  intelligently  followed.     A  dif- 


The  split-log  drag  at  work  on  an  Iowa  road. 

ficult  piece  of  construction  or  fixing  of  grades  should,  how- 
ever, always  be  carried  out  under  the  supervision  of  an 
expert. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  What  is  the  prevailing  type  of  road  in  your  local- 
ity? How  many  miles  of  public  roads  in  your  school  dis- 
trict?    In  your  county? 

2.  What  roads  do  you  know  which  climb  steep  hills? 
Can  you  devise  a  method  by  which  you  can  measure  the 


/ 


428  AGRICULTURE 

grade  of  the  incline,  and  find  how  many  feet  risft  to  each 
one  hundred  feet? 

3.  How  many  split-log  drags  in  your  school  district? 
What  road  machinery  is  owned  by  the  township  or  road 
district  ? 

4.  Under  what  management  is  the  care  of  roads  in 
your  locality?  Name  the  road  officials  of  your  district 
and  county.  Give  a  statement  of  the  road  laws  of  your 
state. 

5.  What  different  materials  are  used  in  constructing 
bridges,  culverts  and  road  drainage  systems  in  your  local- 
ity ?    Which  seems  to  be  the  most  satisfactory  ? 

6.  Do  any  transcontinental  or  state  highways  pass 
through  your  state  ?  If  so,  locate  them  on  a  '  state  map 
and  name  them. 

7.  For  whom  was  the  macadam  road  named  ?  Describe 
how  such  a  road  is  built. 

8.  Look  up  the  story  of  each  of  the  following  men  and 
learn  what  he  did  to  help  the  cause  of  gqod  roads :  Pierre- 
Marie  Fresaguet,  J.  L.  MacAdam,  Thomas  Tilford,  Eli 
Whitney  Blake. 

6.    Demoiistr^ations 

Many  of  the  demonstrations  should  be  conducted  out  on 
the  public  highway  and  when  possible  under  the  supervi- 
sion or  direction  of  the  road  supervisor,  commissioner  or 
expert. 

1.  Demonstrate  how  to  make  a  split-log  drag,  either 
full  size  or  miniature. 

2.  Demonstrate  by  means  of  drawing,  paper  or  wood 
construction,  the  various  types  of  drainage  used  in  road 
building. 

3.  Show  how  properly  to  crown  a  road. 

4.  demonstrate  how  to  repair  a  rut  in  a  permanent 
roadway. 

5.  Demonstrate  by  drawing  a  roa<^,way  showing  cor- 
rect perspective,  crowning,  drainage,  etc. 


A  good  macadam  road. 


Bituminous  macadam  road  in  ^■e^v  Jer; 


430 


AGRICULTURE 


7.     Road  Play  Contests 

1.  Road  dragging  contest. 

2.  Split-log  drag  making  contest. 

3.  Road  drawing  contest. 

4.  Essay  writing  contest  on  subjects  relating  to  roads. 

5.  Spelling   and   drawing  contests,   as   related   to  the 
words  and  interests  of  road  work. 


A  concrete  IJiMdj^e.     Tliis  type  of  structin-e  shot^d  replace  the 
old  wooden  bridge. 

8.    Road  Club  Projects 

Permanent  road  building  as  a  rule  is  not  tlie  work  of 
boys  and  girls.  But  the  building,  maintenance  and  repair 
of  common  earth  and  gravel  roads  is  quite  within  the  reach 
of  the  boys  ranging  in  age  from  twelve  to  nineteen.  Two 
different  road  projects  are  suited  to  club  work. 

One  project  is  known  as  the  "School  Road  Dragging 
Club,"  in  which  the  pupils,  under  the  leadership  of  the 
teacher  and  with  the  advice  of  the  road  officer,  take  charge 
of  one  mile  of  public  highway  near  the  schoolhouse,  keep- 
ing it  well  dragged  and  in  repair  for  the  season.  A  second 
project  permits  individual  pupils  to  take  charge  of  one  mile 
of  road  in  front  of  the  homestead,  keeping  it  carefully 
dragged  and  in  good  repair  during  the  summer. 


ROAD  BUILDING  AND  MAINTENANCE        431 

Awards. — The  basis  of  award  in  either  of  these  club 
projects  may  be  as  follows : 

1.  General  improvement  in  road  during  period  of  club  pro- 

ject, based  upon  trueness,  alignment,  regularity  and 
clearness  of  ditches,  amount  and  shape  of  crown,  bet- 
terment of  surface  and  drainage 15 

2.  General   condition  of  improved   section  at   end   of   club 

project  period  with  reference  to  clearness  of  ditches, 
waterways,  trueness,  and  shape  of  borders,  freedom 
from  ruts  and  depressions,  smoothness,  compactness, 
regularity  of  width 15 

3.  Economy  of  methods  used,  based  on  ten  cents  per  hour 

for  time  of  horse,  and  ten  cents  per  hour  for  member 15 

4.  Written  report  and  story  of  "The  Road  Work  of  the  Sea- 

son"   IS 

5.  Faithfulness  of  maintenance  during  club  project  period 

with  reference  to  freedom  of  flow  in  ditches  and 
waterways,  repair  of  borders  and  washes,  rapidity  of 
drying  out  and  hardening  after  rains,  and  the  regular- 
ity and  systematic  use  of  the  split-log  drag 40 

Total  score 100 

The  authors  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Maurice  O.  Eldridge,  of 
the  office  of  Good  Roads,  Washington,  D.  C.,  for  able  assistance 
in  the  preparation  of  this  chapter,  and  to  the  office  of  Public 
Roads  for  photographs  used. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 
BIRDS  AND  OTHER  INSECT  DESTROYERS 

THE  farmer  is  greatly  assisted  in  his  war  against  the 
insects  that  prey  on  crops,  orchards  and  gardens  by  birds 
and  other  creatures  that  use  these  pests  for  food.  Every 
farm  boy  and  girl  should  learn  the  most  useful  of  these 
small  friends  and  protect  them  in  every  way. 

1.     Birds  and  Their  Food 

Whether  certain  birds  are  helpful  or  harmful  to  the 
farmer  depends  almost  wholly  on  what  the  bird  eats.  If 
its  diet  consists  chiefly  of  farm  grains  and  domestic  fruits, 
or  if  the  bird  kills  other  useful  birds,  it  is  an  enemy;  if, 
on  the  other  hand,  its  food  is  made  up  mainly  of  harmful 
bugs,  beetles,  grasshoppers,  caterpillars  and  worms,  it  should 
be  counted  as  a  friend.  It  is  also  to  be  remembered  that 
many  birds  that  eat  grain  or  fruit  as  a  part  of  their  diet 
may  kill  enough  noxious  insects  in  return  to  pay  far  more 
than  for  damage  they  do.  Besides  devouring  insects,  many 
species  of  birds  eat  immense  quantities  of  weed  seed,  thus 
reducing  the  weed  crop  of  the  next  season. 

Food  of  some  common  birds. — The  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  has  examined  the  stomachs  of 
many  birds  to  determine  the  nature  of  their  food,  and  thus 
discover  their  relation  to  agriculture: 

The  quail  or  bobwhite  eats  weed  seed,  potato  beetles, 
squash  beetles,  the  boll-weevil,  chinch-bug,  grasshoppers, 
cutworms,  etc. 

432 


A  favorite  food  of  the  birds. 


434  AGRICULTURE 

Mourning  doves  live  principally  on  weed  seed,  with  a 
small  proportion  of  waste  grain. 

Cuckoos  live  chiefly  on  caterpillars,  grasshoppers, 
beetles,  moths  and  other  harmful  insects. 

The  red-headed  woodpecker  makes  three-quarters  of  his 
diet  consist  of  harmful  insects,  and  most  of  the  rest  of 
weed  seed  and  wild  fruit. 

The  night  hawk  is  especially  fond  of  flying  ants,  but  also 
eats  grasshoppers,  beetles  and  bugs. 

Bank  swallows  and  barn  swallows  live  almost  entirely 
on  flies,  various  species  of  flying  beetles,  ants  and  weevils. 

The  grosbeaks  are  among  the  most  useful  of  our  birds. 
They  are  particularly  fond  of  potato  beetles,  and  have  done 
much  to  rid  the  farmers  of  this  pest.  They  also  eat  other 
harmful  insects. 

The  barn  ozd  Vives  principally  on  mice,  rats  and  rab- 
bits. While  he  captures  an  occasional  chicken,  he  does  far 
more  good  than  harm  and  should  be  protected. 

The  crow  is  usually  looked  upon  as  a  thief  and  a  rob- 
ber. There  is  no  doubt  that  the  crow  does  pull  up  young 
com,  rob  birds'  nests  and  occasionally  kill  chickens.  Yet 
the  crow  is  so  fond  of  beetles,  grasshoppers,  bugs  and  other 
crop  enemies  that  his  virtues  exceed  his  vices  and  he  should 
be  counted  as  a  friend. 

Other  useful  birds. — It  will  not  be  necessary  to  ex- 
tend this  list,  which  might  be  made  to  include  scores  of 
birds  that  join  with  the  farmer  in  his  efforts  to  rid  the 
crops  of  insect  pests.  Among  the  many  species  that  should 
be  encouraged  and  protected  are:  meadowlark,  house  wren, 
song  sparrow,  oriole,  scissor-tail  fly  catcher,  mocking-bird, 
blue  jay,  red-winged  blackbird,  cardinal,  red-headed  wood- 
pecker, killdeer,  screech  owl,  robin,  bluebird,  snow  bird, 
warbler,  'kinglet.  In  general,  the  birds  are  the  farmer's 
friends  and  deserve  his  good  will. 


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BIRDS  AND  OTHER  INSECT  DESTROYERS     437 

Harmful  birds. — A  few  species  of  birds  do  much  more 
harm  than  good  and  therefore  do  not  merit  protection. ' 

The  English  sparrow  has  been  declared  a  pest  and  should 
be  exterminated.  While  in  some  regions  it  eats  a  certain 
proportion  of  weed  seed  and  harmful  insects,  on  the  whole 
its  diet  consists  of  orchard  fruits,  young  garden  vegetables 
and  field  grains,  especially  wheat.  It  also  eats  the  eggs 
and  attacks  the  young  of  a  score  of  useful  birds,  thus  re- 
ducing their  number.  Campaigns  of  extermination  have 
been  waged  against  the  English  sparrow  in  various  parts  of 
the  country. 

The  house  finch  and  the  sapsucker  also  do  sufficient  dam- 
age that  they  have  no  claim  to  the  farmer's  good  will  or 
protection. 

2.     Other  Enemies  of  Harmful  Insects  and  Animals 

Besides  birds  a  number  of  other  creatures,  most  of  them 
so  lowly  as  all  but  to  escape  observation,  are  good  friends 
of  the  farmer. 

The  toad. — The  common  ugly  toad,  which  we  often 
either  avoid  or  kick  out  of  our  path,  deserves  better  treat- 
ment. Its  food  consists  of  flies,  caterpillars,  cutworms, 
June-bugs  and  other  harmful  insects. 

The  horned  lizard  fancies  almost  the  same  bill  of  fare 
and  joins  with  the  toad  to  protect  our  gardens. 

Snakes. — The  small  snakes  common  to  most  regions 
are  entirely  harmless,  and  live  on  our  enemies,  such  as 
mice,  various  beetles  and  weevils.  It  is  therefore  a  mis- 
take to  kill  them. 

3.    Protecting  Our  Friends 

Boys  and  girls  should  make  a  study  of  the  life  and 
habits  of  the  humble  friends  who  do  their  best  to  rid  our 
fields  and  gardens  of  their  enemies,  and  should  always  en- 
courage and  protect  them. 


Tiie  yelluw-bellled  supsucker- 


I 


BIRDS  AND  OTHER  INSECT  DESTROYERS     439 

Attracting  the  birds. — Bird  houses  consisting  of  small 
boxes  roofed  over,  cans  open  at  one  end,  or  other  suitable 
receptacles  placed  in  trees  or  on  posts  in  secluded  places 
will  do  much  to  attract  certain  birds.  When  deep  snow 
covers  the  ground  in  winter,  hiding  the  seeds  and  other 
food,  it  will  pay  well  to  scatter  a  little  grain  each  day 
where  the  non-migrating  birds  will  find  it. 


English  spjirrows,  male  aud  female. 


How  to  treat  a  friend.T— Bird  hunting  should  not  be 
with  a  gun,  but  with  a  camera,  field  glass  or  alert  eyes  for 
the  purpose  of  becoming  acquainted  with  our  feathered 
friends.  Birds'  nests  should  never  be  disturbed,  the  eggs 
handled  or  the  young  worried  during  nesting  time.  The 
fashion  which  decorates  hats  with  the  plumage  of  birds, 


440  AGRICULTURE 

?  thus  requiring  their  destruction,  should  be  severely  con- 
demned. We  should  even  come  to  look  upon  toads,  lizards, 
snakes  and  frogs  as  our  friends  and  treat  them  well. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  birds  you  are  able  to  identify  at 
sight.    Do  you  know  the  nesting  habits  of  each  of  these? 

2.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  birds'  eggs  you  are  able  to 
identify.    Dp  you  know  the  hatching  time  of  each  ? 

3.  Secure  a  copy  of  Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.  54  and 
506,  and  make  a  table  of  the  food  of  each  of  the  common 
birds  of  your  locality. 

4.  What  birds  remain  over  winter  in  your  region? 
What  ones  migrate  and  where  do  they  go  ? 

5.  Watch  for  toads,  lizards  and  snakes  and  observe 
their  feeding  habits. 

6.  Keep  a  lookout  for  birds  you  do  not  recognize,  and 
find  out  their  names  and  habits. 


CHAPTER  XXX 
MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION 

1.    How  to  Remove  Stains 

Iron  rust. — Apply  salt  and  lemon  juice  to  the  damp- 
ened spots.  Place  in  the  sun  or  near  the  fire.  Then  rinse 
or  wash  thoroughly. 

Fruit  stains. — Pour  over  stained  cloth,  boiling  v/ater, 
letting  it  fall  a  distance  of  four  or  five  feet,  or  wring  article 
out  of  cold  water  and  leave  out-of-doors  over  a  cold  night. 

Blood  stains. — All  fresh  blood  stains  can  be  easily 
rubbed  out  after  soaking  in  cold  or  tepid  water.  After 
the  blood  has  been  dried,  use  javelle  water  or  peroxide  of 
hydrogen.    Kerosene  is  sometimes  used  with  success. 

Paint  spots. — Use  equal  parts  of  ammonia  and  turpen- 
tine.   Wash  or  rub  until  clean. 

Grass  stains. — Remove  grass  stains  by  the  use  of 
alcohol,  naphtha  soap,  or  ammonia  and  water. 

Ink. — The  commercial  ink  eradicator  will  remove  ink 
stains  from  all  white  goods.  If  used  on  colored  goods  it 
will  probably  bleach  or  remove  color.  Another  practical 
recipe  is  to  wet  the  spot  with  warm  water  and  sapolio,  rub 
or  polish  between  the  hands,  wash  in  a  solution  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  rinse  in  ammonia  water. 

Mildew. — Mix  equal  parts  of  soap  and  starch,  half 
as  much  common  salt,  and  juice  of  half  a  lemon.  Spread 
over  the  spots  and  lay  garment  upon  the  grass  until  the 
stain  disappears. 

Perspiration. — Soak  in  cold  water,  wash  with  borax 
and  spread  garment  to  dry  in  sunlight.    Under-arm  stains 

441 


442  •  AGRICULTURE 

?  usually  require  an  acid  such  as  a  weak  solution  of  muriatic 
acid. 

Burned  cooking  utensils. — To  clean  granite  ware 
where  mixtures  have  been  burned  on  the  surface,  fill  con- 
tainer half  full  of  water,  add  good  soap,  washing  powder, 
or  baking  soda.  Bring  water  to  a  bojling  point  and  scrub 
with  a  small  brush. 

Tea,  coffee  or  cocoa. — Wash  with  cold  water,  pour 
glycerine  over  spots  and  let  stand  for  a  few  hours.  Then 
wash  with  cold  water  and  hard  soap.  If  stains  are  fresh, 
pour  over  the  stains  boiling  water  from  a  height  of  four  or 
rive  feet,  after  soaking. 

Tar  or  wagon  grease. — Use  cold  soap-suds. 

Pit  stains. — Grease  with  lard  before  using  soap  and 
water.  Turpentine  will  usually  remove  the  stains  if  other 
remedies  fail. 

2.     Location  of  Colleges  of  Agriculture,  Extension  Depart- 
ments and  Experiment  Stations 

Letters  addressed  to  any  of  these  institutions,  request- 
ing information  on  agriculture  or  home  economics  subjects 
will  be  answered  with  courtesy.  Help  will  be  rendered  or 
farm  bulletins  supplied  when  possible. 


MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION  443 


College  of  Extension  Experiment 

STATE  Agrlcmture  Department  Station 

Alabama Auburn Auburn Auburn 

Uniontown    (Sub.) 
Tuskegee    (negro) 

Arizona Tucson Tucson Tucson 

Arkansas FayettevUle Fayetteville Fayetteville 

California Berkeley Berkeley Berkeley 

Colorado Fort   Collins Fort  Collins Fort    Collins 

Connecticut Storrs Storrs Storrs 

New    Haven 

Delaware Newark Newark Newark 

Florida Gainesville Gainesville Gainesville 

Georgia Athens Athens Experiment 

Hawaii Honolulu Honolulu Honolulu  i 

Idaho Moscow Boise Moscow 

Illinois Urbana Urbana Urbana 

Indiana Lafayette Lafayette Lafayette 

Iowa Ames Ames Ames 

Kansas Manhattan Manhattan Manhattan 

Kentucky -     Lexington Lexington Lexington 

Louisiana Baton   Rouge Baton   Rouge Baton   Rouge 

New    Orleans New    Orleans Auburn  Park  (breh.) 

Calhoun    (branch) 
Crowley   (branch) 

Maine Orono Orono Orono 

Maryland College  Park College    Park College  Park 

Massachusetts .    Amherst Amherst , Amherst 

Michigan East    Lansing East    Lansing East    Lansing 

Minnesota St.    Paul St.    Paul gt.    Paul      ■ 

Mississippi Agric.  College Agric.     College Agric.    College 

Missouri Columbia Columbia Columbia 

Montana Bozeman Bozeman Bozeman 

Nebraska Lincoln ,  Lincoln Lincoln 

Nevada Reno Reno Reno 

New   Hampshire—     Durham Durham Durham 

New   Jersey New    Brunswick—.  New  Brunswick —  New   Brunswick 

New    Mexico State    College State  College State   College 

New    York Ithaca Ithaca Ithaca 

Geneva 

North    Carolina West    Raleigh West  Raleigh West  Raleigh 

North   Dakota Agric.    College Agric.    College Agric.   College 

Ohio Columbus Columbus Wooster 

Oklahoma Stillwater Stillwater Stillwater 

Oregon Corvallls Corvallls Corvallis 

Pennsylvania State    College State    College State    College 

Porto   Rico Mayaguez Mayaguez Mayaguez 

Rio  Piedras    (Sub.) 

South  Carolina Clemson  College Clemson   College.-.  Clemson    College 

South    Dakota Brookings Brookings Brookings 

Tennessee KnoxvUle Knoxvllle Knoxvllle 

Texas College  Station College   Station College  Station 

Utah Logan Logan I>ogan 

Vermont Burlington Burlington Burlington 

Virginia Blacksbnrg Blacksburg Blacksburg 

Hampton Hampton    (negro).  Norfolk    (branch) 

Washington Pullman Pullman Pullman 

West  yirginla Morgantown Morgantown Morgantown 

Wisconsin Madison Madison Madison 

Wyoming Laramie .  Laramie Laramie 


444-  AGRICULTiyRE 

3.    Distances  Apart  for  Planting  Fruits  and  Vegetables 

Feet  Feet 

Apples    30.0-40.0  Cabbage    2.0-  3.0 

Apricots    15.0-20.0  Carrot .5-  2.0 

Cherries    15.0-25.0  Corn,  sweet 3.0-  3.5 

Oranges    25.0-30.0  Celery    3.0-  4.0 

Peaches   15.0-20.0  Lettuce    .5-  2.0 

Pears    20.0-30.0  Onion  1.5-  2.0 

Plums  15.0-20.0  Parsley    1.0-  2.0 

Quinces   10.0-12.0  Peas    1.0-  3.0 

Blackberries    4.5-  7.0  Potato    2.5-  3.0 

Currants    4.0-  4.5  Radish    1.0-  1.5 

Raspberries  3.5-  5.0  Salsify   .5-  2.0 

Strawberries   1.0-  4.0  Squash    and    pumpkin  6.0-  8.0 

Asparagus    2.0-  4.0  Turnip    .5-  2.0 

Beans,  bush  and  pole     1.0-  4.0  Tomato    3.0-  4.0 

Beets    .5-  2.0 

4.    Quantity  of  Seed  per  Acre  and  Legal  Weights 
per  Bushel 

Seed  Weight 

per  acre  per  bu. 

Alfalfa    30  lbs.  60  lbs. 

Barley    8  to  10  pks.   48  lbs.* 

Blue-grass  20  to  25  lbs.    14  lbs. 

Buckwheat    3  to    5  pks.     48  lbs.* 

Clover    10  to  15  lbs.    60  lbs.* 

Corn,  shelled,  check  row 6  to    8  qts.    60  lbs. 

Corn,  ensilage 10  qts.    

Cotton,  upland  4  to    8  pks.   32  lbs.* 

Cow-pea  4  to    7  pks.  60  lbs. 

Oats    2  to    3  bu.   _  32  lbs. 

Potato  _- 6  to  18  bu.   60  lbs.*  - 

Rye    3  to    8  pks.     56  Ibs."^ 

Timothy    10  to  20  lbs.    45  lbs.* 

Wheat    6  to    9  pks.   60  lbs. 


*Varies  in  a  few  states. 

THE   END 


TO  THE  TEACHER 


r 


TO  THE  TEACHER 


1.     The  Point  of  View 

SUCCESSFUL  teaching  of  agriculture,  more  than  that  of 
any  other  subject,  depends  on  the  spirit  and  methods  of 
the  teacher.  Agricvilture  is  so  thoroughly  concrete  a  subject 
that  only  a  small  part  of  it  can  be  effectively  taught  by  text- 
book and  in  class  room  without  the  assistance  of  field  and 
farm.  The  teacher  of  agriculture  must  remember  first  of 
all  that  there  is  no  real  agriculture  in  the  text-book. 

The  place  of  the  text. — Real  agriculture  is  out  in  the 
fields,  gardens  and  pastures,  and  among  the  herds  and 
flocks  of  the  farm.  The  text-book  can  only  serve  as  a 
guide  to  point  the  way,  showing  the  pupil  what  to  look  for, 
and  teaching  him  to  understand  what  he  finds  as  he  meets 
the  problems  of  preparing  the  soil,  planting  and  tilling  the 
crop,  or  feeding  and  caring  for  the  stock.  Agriculture  can 
therefore  not  be  taught  from  the  text  alone,  no  matter  how 
complete  or  well  arranged  it  may  be,  nor  how  generous  the 
illustrations.  The  text-book  is  very  important  in  class 
room  and  laboratory,  but  it  must  be  supplemented  by  the 
immediate  interests  of  the  farm. 

2.     Public  School  Extension  Work 

This  point  of  view  suggests. a  method  for  connecting  the 
work  of  the  school  with  the  home.  The  children  should 
actually  do  the  things  they  study  about.  For  a  number  of 
years  the  colleges  of  agriculture   have  been  engaging  in 

(0 


ii  TO   THE   TEACHER 

various  forms  of  extension  work,  with  a  view  to  oftenng 
the  services  of  the  educational  institution  to  those  who  can 
not  go  to  college.  The  time  has  come  when  the  public 
school  should  also  offer  some  such  form  of  extension  serv- 
ice reaching  the  homes  of  its  patrons. 

Plans  for  extension  projects. — Agricultural  extension 
work  can  be  carried  out  by  the  public  schools  according  to 
two  different  plans:  (1)  the  setting  of  certain  definite 
home  or  farm  "projects,"  or  specific  pieces  of  work,  to  be 
carried  out  by  the  individual  pupils  as  a  part  of  the  course 
in  agriculture;  or  (2)  the  organization  of  agricultural 
clubs,  \yhich  provide  for  group,  or  coordinated,  work  of 
specified  nature,  usually  in  conjunction  with  state  or  national 
club  organizations.  In  either  case  a  certain  amount  of 
school  credit  should  be  allowed  for  home  and  club  work 
satisfactorily  done. 

Agricultural  club  projects.— The  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  has  undertaken  the  organization  of 
boys'  and  girls'  clubs  in  every  state  in  the  Union,  and, 
wherever  possible,  works  in  connection  with  the  public 
schools.  Government  experts,  state  club  managers,  county 
agricultural  agents  and  the  state  agricultural  colleges  all 
stand  ready  to  help  organize,  promote  and  direct  these 
clubs. 

The  teacher  of  agriculture  will  find  the  club  a  great 
incentive  to  pupils,  and  an  invaluable  adjunct  to  text-book 
and  class-room  work.  Through  the  club  it  is  possible  to 
translate  book  and  laboratory  information  into  real  action 
in  the  field,  with  the  herds,  and  in  the  home.  Agricultural 
club  work  will  also  do  much  to  bridge  the  gap  that  has  so 
long  existed  between  the  home  and  the  school. 

The  number  of  club  projects. — The  club  idea  must 
not,  however,*  be  overdone.  It  is  possible  to  start  so  many 
projects  that  none  of  them  can  be  well  supervised  or  sue- 


TO    THE   TEACHER  ni 

cessfully  carried  out.  Probably  no  school  should  encour- 
age the  formation  of  more  than  two  different  club  projects 
for  the  same  season.  Club  work  is  outlined  with  almost 
every  chapter  in  this  text,  but  not  with  the  expectation  that 
any  school  will  organize  at  one  time  all  the  clubs  suggested. 
The  teacher,  with  the  cooperation  of  county,  state  or 
national  agricultural  club  leaders,  should  select  for  boys 
the  project  of  greatest  agricultural  significance  and  value 
to  the  community,  and  for  the  girls  the  project  of  greatest 
economic  and  social  value  to  the  community  home  life. 
Every  rural  school,  especially,  should  have  two  such  club 
projects.  This  plan  will  carry  the  benefits  of  the  school  to 
the  homes,  and  offer  the  boys  and  girls  real  interests  in 
agriculture  and  home  economics  not  only  for  the  school 
year,  but  for  the  summer  vacation  as  well. 

3.     Equipment  for  Teaching  Agriculture 

The  amount  and  nature  of  the  equipment  required  for 
the  teaching  of  agriculture  will  depend  largely  on  the  time 
allotted  to  the  study,  the  age  and  grade  of  the  pupils,  and 
the  scope  of  the  work  undertaken.  But  every  school,  no 
matter  how  small  or  elementary,  must  have  certain  neces- 
sary equipment  if  the  work  is  to  be  most  successful.  Much 
of  this  material  can  be  made  by  the  pupils  in  the  school,  if 
they  are  properly  directed. 

Tables  and  cabinets. — It  is  essential  to  have  suitable 
table  space  so  as  to  permit  study  or  demonstration  in  a 
group.  This  will  be  much  more  satisfactory  than  under- 
taking to  do  the  work  from  the  individual  desks  of  the 
pupils.  For  successful  class  work  the  pupils  should  always 
be  seated  together  for  observation  and  instruction,  and 
there  must  be  room  for  the  display  and  distribution  of  ma- 
terial to  be  used  by  the  entire  class.  Adequate  cupboard  or 
cabinet  space  for  the  storing  of  material  and  specimens  is 


iv  TO   THE   TEACHER 

important.  These  may  be  separate  pieces,  or  built  perma- 
nently in  or  against  the  wall.  They  should  be  mouse-proof, 
otherwise  the  specimens  are  likely  to  be  destroyed.  Tlie 
upper  section  of  the  cabinet  may  be  of  glass  and  the  lower 
doors  of  wood.  The  doors  should  be  locked  throughout  the 
night  and  the  vacation  periods. 

4.     Individual  Equipment 

A  few  pieces  of  litmus  paper. 

Small  glass  vials  for  the  selection  of  weed  seeds  and 
samples  of  soil. 

Two  pieces  of  quarter-inch  hemp  rope  for  use  in  the 
study  of  the  relation  of  the  rope  to  agriculture. 

A  few  blotter  testers,  a  rag-doll  tester,  and  at  home,  a 
box  seed-corn  tester. 

Seed  racks  and  seed  trays  used  for  drying  and  exhib- 
iting purposes. 

A  small  thermometer  for  the  testing  of  temperatures  of 
water,  soil,  etc. 

A  few  simple  garden  tools  like  hoes,  rakes,  small  hand 
spades,  potato  fork,  etc.  Most  of  the  garden  tools  can,  of 
course,  be  supplied  from  the  home  to  be  used  both  at  home 
and  at  school. 

Some  simple  carpenter  tools  for  use  in  the  making  of 
model  hen  houses,  feed  and  watering  troughs,  single-trees, 
seed  boxes,  cold-frames,  etc. 

5.     General  Equipment  for  the  School 

Seed  trays,  seed-testing  equipment,  .soil  capillarity  tubes, 
a  set  of  large-mouthed  bottles  for  exhibits  of  types  of  soil, 
a  similar  set  for  exhibits  of  seeds,  a  Babcock  milk  tester, 
canning  equipment,  a  few  miniature  models  .of  farm  machin- 
ery.   When  room  has  be6n  provided  and  funds  are  available 


TO   THE   TEACHER  •    v 

regular  farm  machinery,  cream  separators,  fanning  mills, 
etc.,  will  be  of  great  value  in  the  teaching  of  the  various 
subjects  of  agriculture.  ■ 

6.     Laboratory  Material 

A  great  deal  of  the  material  for  instruction  can  be  ob- 
tained as  needed  from  the  homes,  and  adjoining  farms  and 
fields.  It  is  not  possible,  however,  to  make  the  course  in 
agriculture  follow  the  seasons  exactly,  and  some  material 
therefore  needs  to  be  stored  for  class  use.  Other  material 
may  not  be  easily  found  when  required.  Samples  of  still 
other  products  may  not  be  available  in  the  region,  and 
should  be  kept  for  comparison. 

Samples  of  soils. — Samples  of  all  the  different  va- 
rieties of  soils  to  be  found  in  the  region  should  be  collected 
and  kept  in  laboratory  bottles,  jars  or  common  fruit  jars. 
These  samples  should  include  soils  rich  in  humus,  clays, 
sands,  lava,  and  soils  in  which  organic  matter  is  lacking. 
Each  sample  should  be  labeled,  telling  the  type  represented 
and  where  obtained. 

Specimens  of  cereal  plants  and  grains. — Samples  of 
all  the  common  cereal  grains,  including  the  different  local 
varieties,  should  be  collected  and  stored  in  wide-mouthed 
bottles.  These  will  serve  for  comparison  with  samples 
brought  by  the  pupils  from  their  farm  crops.  Specimens 
of  the  cereal  plants  should  also  be  collected  and  stored 
when  the  crop  is  ripening.  This  will  allow  the  class  to 
study  the  different  types  and  varieties  of  wheat,  oats,  etc., 
and  to  identify  each  from  the  plant,  even  if  the  study  can 
not  be  taken  up  when  the  crops  are  available  in  the  fields. 
It  is  also  desirable  to  make  a  collection  of  types  or  varieties 
not  common  to  the  region  and  use  them  for  comparison. 
The  state  agricultural  college  can  usually  help  in  securing 
such  a  collection. 


vi  TO    THE   TEACHER 

Specimens  of  grasses  and  legumes. — A  complete  col- 
lection of  the  native  grasses  and  legumes  should  be  made 
in  every  school.  The  pupils  will  delight  in  helping  in  this 
work,  which  may  be  made  one  of  the  most  valuable  parts 
of  their  instruction.  Wherever  possible  the  roots  should 
be  saved  with  the  stem,  so  that  the  entire  plant  will  be 
represented.  The  specimens  should  be  clearly  labeled  and 
tied  in  bunches  or  attached  to  pieces  of  cardboard.  It  is 
not  intended  that  these  dried  samples  shall  be  used  for  study 
instead  of  the  growing  plant,  but  they  are  often  useful  for 
occasional  illustration  when  there  is  no  time  to  collect  the 
new  material.  They  also  serve  as  a  standard  for  identifica- 
tion of  specimens  brought  by  the  pupils  to  the  school.  The 
list  should  include  the  chief  varieties  grown  in  other  sec- 
tions of  the  country. 

Specimens  of  weeds. — A  collection  of  the  noxious 
weeds  of  the  region  should  be  made  and  labels  attached. 
Here  again  the  class  may  be  used  in  making  the  collection 
of  all  specimens  that  are  available  at  the  time  school  is  in 
session  or  even  during  vacation.  A  collection  of  weed 
seeds  should  be  saved  in  bottles  like  those  used  for  the 
cereals.  Pupils  should  become  able  to  identify  at  sight 
both  the  weed  plant  and  its  seed,  and  should  know  the 
habits  of  growth,  the  injury  done  crops  and  the  method  of 
eradication. 

Specimens  of  injurious  insects  and  worms. — The  in- 
sect pests  common  to  the  region  should  be  collected  and 
preserved  for  study  by  attaching  them  to  cardboard  by 
means  of  laboratory  pins  or  other  device.  The  school 
should  have  a  cyanide  insect  bottle  for  killing  specimens, 
and  insect  cases  for  preserving  them.  Each  specimen 
should  be  clearly  labeled  and  the  time  of  its  appearance  and 
disappearance  given.  These  specimens  will  then  serve  as 
a  guide  for  the  class  in  making  their  own  collection,  or 


I 


TO    THE    TEACHER  vii 

identifying  the  insects  at  work.  The  proper  place  to  study- 
insects  is,  of  course,  in  the  field  in  connection  with  the  soil 
and  plant  life  whenever  they  are  available. 

Specimens  of  woods. — A  collection  of  native  woods 
is  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  easy  to  make.  Every 
pupil  will  be  glad  to  take  part  in  the  work.  Samples  of 
the  leaves  should  also  be  collected  and  preserved.  Such  a 
collection  will  supply  the  basis  for  a  study  of  trees,  and 
should  result  in  each  pupil  being  able  to  identify  native 
trees  at  sight,  either  by  their  leaves  or  wood  and  habits  of 
growth.  Pupils  should  not  be  permitted  to  destroy  useful 
plants  for  the  sake  of  school  specimens. 

7.    Method  of  Instruction 

It  is  not  possible  or  desirable  in  this  place  to  give  de- 
tailed discussion  as  to  the  methods  of  teaching  agriculture. 
Certain  broad  and  fundamental  principles  may,  however, 
be  stated. 

Seeking  knowledge  at  first  hand. — From  the  very 
first  day,  the  pupils  should  be  made  to  feel  that  the  study  of 
agriculture  is  the  study  of  the  actual  problems  of  the  farm 
— crops,  soils,  animals,  and  all  else  that  goes  to  make  up 
the  life  of  the  farm.  To  "get  a  lesson,"  is  therefore  not 
to  commit  to  memory  what  the  text  may  say  on  a  certain 
subject,  but  to  use  the  text-book  and  all  other  available 
helps  to  master  fully  the  problem  at  hand  in  the  study  of 
an  ear  of  corn,  the  preparation  of  the  seed  bed,  the  fertiliz- 
ing of  a  field,  or  the  feeding  and  management  of  a  flock 
or  herd. 

Use  of  the  text-book. — The  text-book  is  arranged  to 
give  as  natural  and  interesting  an  approach  as  possible  to 
each  chapter  or  topic.  There  is  hardly  a  text-book  lesson 
for  a  single  day  which  does  not  provide  for  some  practical 
home  and  field  study  in  connection  with  the  subject  under 


viii  TO    THE    TEACHER 

consideration.  The  lesson  assignment  should  usually  first 
be  studied  from  the  text,  the  field,  laboratory  or  home 
work  on  the  topic  then  being  taken  up.  The  topics  for 
investigation  and  the  questions  throughout  the  text  should 
ahiHiys  be  worked  out  fully  and  thoroughly.  In  many  in- 
stances the  teacher  will  desire  to  add  questions  or  topics  to 
supplement  those  of  the  book.  Only  in  such  practical  ways 
can  the  work  be  made  interesting  and  vital. 

Use  of  note-books. — The  pupils  should  be  provided 
with  note-books  of  uniform  size.  In  these  should  be  kept 
a  record  of  all  demonstrations,  experiments,  field  trips  and 
excursions  and  observations.  Here  should  also  be  worked 
out  all  the  exercises  and  problems  required  in  the  text,  and 
those  assigned  by  the  teacher.  Drawings,  diagrams,  tables 
or  any  other  matter  brought  into  the  course  should  find 
.their  way  into  the  note-book.  Pictures  of  farm  animals, 
crops,  machines,  farm  buildings  and  the -like,  should  be  as- 
sembled and  form  a  part  of  the  record  of  the  course. 
Every  note-book  should  be  neat  and  well  kept,  and  ar- 
ranged in  a  businesslike  manner. 

Correlation  with  other  subjects. — Agriculture  may 
well  be  made  in  inany  schools  to  serve  as  the  basis  of  corre- 
lation with  other  subjects.  Much  of  the  arithmetic  can 
be  taught  more  efficiently  and  naturally  from  the  lessons 
in  agriculture  than  in  any  other  way.  Language  work, 
including  composition  and  letter-writing,  can  be  related  to 
much  of  the  work  of  the  agriculture  course.  Industrial 
geography  is  suggested  by  every  chapter  in  the  text.  Free- 
hand and  mechanical  drawing,  manual  training  and  domes- 
tic science  all  connect  easily  and  naturally  with  the  lessons 
and  problems  of  the  course. 

Connection  with  home  work. — Constant  reference  is 
made  in  the  text  to  the  crops,  gardens,  stock,  soil  and  other 
interests  found  on  the  farm  or  at  home.    This  is  not  by' 


TO   THE   TEACHER   •  ix 

accident.  The  purpose  is  to  make  the  study  of  agriculture 
interesting  and  helpful  by  connecting  it  immediately  with 
the  homes.  The  teacher  who  will  faithfully  carry  out  this 
concrete  method  of  instruction  will  find  growing  in  his  pu- 
pils a  firm  and  abiding  enthusiasm  in  the  subject  never  to 
be  hoped  for  in  mere  text-book  study.  The  great  purpose 
and  the  highest  success  is  to  get  the  lessons  of  the  text 
translated  into  life  and  action.  The  work  on  agricultural 
projects  assigned  in  connection  with  the  course  should,  as 
far  as  possible,  be  done  under  the  guidance  of  the  teacher 
and  should  receive  school  credit. 

Demonstrations  and  experiments. — The  difference 
between  demonstrations  and  experiments  should  be  clearly 
understood  by  the  class.  The  idea  in  an  experiment  is  to 
investigate,  discover  or  verify  some  truth.  In  a  demon- 
stration some  well-known  truth  is  illustrated,  shown  or 
demonstrated  to  others,  with  the  purpose  of  convincing 
them  of  its  merits  and  leading  them  to  adopt  it  in  practise. 

8.     Seasonal  Order  of  Study 

Seasonal  order  impossible  in  text. — It  is  wholly  im- 
possible to  arrange  any  text  on  agriculture  so  that  the  top- 
ics will  follow  the  seasons  throughout  the  year.  If  this 
could  be  done  it  would  make  the  teacher's  work  much  sim- 
pler and  easier.  But  seasonal  variations  do  not  come  at 
the  same  time  in  different  regions,  nor  does  the  order  of 
the  crops  and  gardens  follow  the  arrangement  of  the  school 
year. 

Order  to  be  based  on  crop  sequence. — Because  of 
these  facts,  it  must  be  left  to  the  teacher  to  select  such  an 
order  from  the  text  as  best  fits  the  crops  and  seasons  of 
his  region.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  chapters  be  taken  in 
succession  as  they  occur.  For  northern  schools  opening  in  the 
late  summer,  the  corn  chapter  undoubtedly  will  be  best  for 


f 


X  TO   THE    TEACHER 

a  begfnning.  The  potato  chapter  should  be  taken  up  before 
the  crop  is  harvested  if  possible.  It  may  be  referred  to 
again  at  planting  time  in  the  spring.  The  garden  chapters 
should  be  studied  during  the  late  winter  or  early  spring, 
and  again  referred  to  as  the  planting,  spraying  or  tillage  is' 
under  consideration.  The  teacher  need  not  be  afraid  even 
to  divide  a  chapter,  using  a  part  at  tv^^o  or  more  different 
seasons  if  this  seems  best.  For  example,  the  field  study  of 
corn  should  be  begun  in  the  fall  with  the  ripening  crop, 
but  the  testing  and  grading  of  seed  corn  should  be  reserved 
for  winter  study. 

The  greater  part  of  the  study  of  farm  animals  can  be 
successfully  carried  on  during  the  winter,  though  certain  of 
the  features  should  be  taken  up  in  the  fall  or  spring.  Some 
of  the  work  on  soils  can  also  be  utilized  for  -^inter  study. 
Actual  field -study  and  demonstrations  will,  of  course,  be 
carried  on  when  the  ground  is  not  frozen.  The  great  point 
is  to  base  the  lessons  on  the  immediate  activities  of  the 
farm  during  just  as  much  of  the  year  as  possible,  making 
the  assignments  from  the  text  conform  to  the  seasonal  or- 
der of  the  locality. 

9.    Reference  Material 

Every  school  where  agriculture  is  taught  should  be 
stocked  with  a  number  of  standard  texts  on  each  of  the 
divisions  of  the  subject.  The  library  should  contain  a 
standard  cyclopedia  of  agriculture.  It  is  also  desirable  to 
have  the  Agricultural  Year  Book  of  the  United  States  De 
partment  of  Agriculture,  and  the  Census  Reports  that  deal 
with  the  subject  of  agriculture.  Arrangements  can  be 
made  for  the  receipt  of  the  current  crop  reports. 

Government  publications. — The  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  is  in  position 
to  give  help  to  all  citizens  on  the  subject  of  agriculture. 


TO    THE    TEACHER        ^  xi 

A  large  number  of  Farmers'  Bulletins,  circulars,  reports 
•  and  special  instructions  on  almost  every  conceivable  agricul- 
tural or  home  economics  subject,  can  be  secured  by  address- 
ing the  Secretary  of  Agriculture.  Most  of  the  publications 
are  free  and  are  intended  for  the  use  of  the  public.  This 
material  makes  a  very  necessary  and  helpful  supplement  to 
the  text-book,  and  should  be  constantly  referred  to.  It  is 
well  to  provide  some  library  or  filing  arrangement  to  con- 
tain such  material,  so  that  it  can  be  properly  classified  and 
cared  for. 

State  agricultural  colleges  and  experiment  stations. — 
Every  state  has  its  agricultural  institution.  These  colleges 
publish  a  great  deal  of  valuable  material  on  the  agricultural 
problems  of  their  respective  states.  In  most  cases  the  ma- 
terial is  free  to  all  citizens  of  the  state,  and  should  be  freely 
drawn  upon  for  school  use.  A  list  of  the  agricultural  col- 
leges and  experiment  stations  will  be  found  in  the  chapter 
on  "Miscellaneous  Information." 


INDEX 


INDEX 

Alfalfa, 

as  forage,  * -~ 

as  soil  renewer,  ^^^ 

chapter  on,  1^^ 

chief  region  of,  ^^4 

enemies  of,  ^^"^ 

feeding  value  of,  1^6 

harvesting  of,  141 

soil  requirements  for,  l«^o 

study  of  plant,  l^-^ 

Animals,   ' 

farm  and  agriculture,  26i 

farm,  section  on,  265 

food  supplying,  267 

products  of,                                                   .  269 

work  of  farm,  265 

Ants,  ^^ 

Aphis, 


corn  root. 


11 


Arsenate  OF  Lead  Spray,  211 

Babcock, 

steps  in  test,  -^'8 

test  for  butter  fat,  277 

Bacteria, 

nitrifying,  H' 

Beep, 

breeds  of  cattle,  28/ 

feeding  cattle,  289 


INDEX. 

Birds, 

and  their  food,  432 

chapter  on,  432 

harmful,  437 

methods  of  protecting,  437 

useful  varieties  of,  434 

Blotter  Seed  Testers,  39 

Bordeaux  Mixture,  208 

Bread,  64 

Canning  Fruits  and  Vegetables, 

chapter  on,  217 

recipes  for,  218 

time  table  for,  222 

Cattle, 

beef,  breeds  of,  287 

chapter  on,  272 

club  projects,  294 

dairy,  272 

feeding  beef,  289 

play  contests  with,  292 

tuberculosis  in,  289 

Chickens, 

breeds  of,  349 

chapter  on,  346 

diseases  of,  367 

feeding  for  eggs,  358 

feeding  of,  357 

houses  for,  363 

the  raising  of,  353 

Chinch-Bugs,  76 

Clovers,  The, 

alsike,  130 
as  forage,                                                                -       121 


INDEX 

Clovers,  The  (CoM/mw^fi)'. 

as  soil  renewer,  122 

chapter  on,  119 

crimson,  131 

enemies  of  red,  128 

harvesting  of,  127 

impurities  of  seed,  126 

red-clover  plant,  1 19 

successful  growing  of,  125 

Club  Work, 

cattle,  294 


corn. 


62 


forage,  118 

fruit  garden,        '  199 

hogs,  335 

horses,        ,  314 

potato,  111 
poultry,                                                                    ■      372 

roads,  430 

sheep,                                                          -  344 

soil,  262 
tomato,                                                                           .   207 

vegetable  garden,  177 

Commercial  Seed  Tester,  36 

Corn, 

barren  stalks,  8 

binder,  52 

chapter  on,  1 

club  work,  62 

cultivation  of,  48 

demonstrations,  61 

depth  of  planting,  ■  46 

ear  worms,  13 

enemies  of,  9 

31 


INDEX 

?  Corn  (Continued). 

for  silo,  53 

grading  seed,  39 

harvesting  and  storing,  50 

judging,  27 

plant,  2 

play  contests,  61 

preparing  seed  for  planter,  38 

root  aphis,  11 

roots  and  moisture,  43 

root  worm,  9 

seed  bed,  43 

seed  saving,  14 

seed  selection  bed,  24 

seed  testing  box,  33 

shocker,  the,  53 

smut,  13 

stand  of,  5 

stover,  value  of,  52 

suckers,  8 

testing  seed,  31 

time  for  gathering  seed,  16 

time  for  planting,  46 

types  of,      •  20 

uses  of,  58 

uses  of  stalk,  59 

varieties  of,  22 

yield  of,  1 
G)UNTY  Agent, 

and  the  school,  404 

financial  support  of,  403 

the  agricultural,  401 


INDEX 

Cow, 

dairy  type  of,  275 

feeding  of  dairy,  281 

judging  the  dairy,  277 

milk  tests  of  the,  277 

Cow-Peas, 

as  forage,  148 

as  soil  renovator,  148 

plant,  146 

Crops, 

forage,  113 

rotation  of,  12 

Cutworms,  12 

Dairy, 

breeds,  279 

profitable  and  unprofitable  cows,  273 

types  of  cows,  275 
Demonstrations, 

cattle,  292 

com,  61 

forage,  118 

fruit  garden,  195 

hogs,  334 

horses,  313 

potato.  111 

poultry,  371 

roads,  428 

sheep,  344 

soil,  261 

tomato,  206 

vegetable  garden,  177 


INDEX 


"f)RAINAGE, 

cost  of, 

260 

surface, 

256 

under, 

258 

Eggs, 

for  hatching, 

353 

producing  and  marketing, 

360 

rules  for  production  of. 

361 

Farm, 

administration  of. 

377 

and  home  management. 

375 

buildings  for  the, 

386 

implements  and  mechanics,  chapter  on. 

408 

selecting  and  planning, 

375 

the  home, 

384 

Farm  Economics, 

section  on. 

375 

Fertilization  of  Plants, 

5 

Fertilizers,  Commercial, 

243 

Forage  Ci«iP§, 

chapter  on. 

113 

club  project. 

118 

importance  of, 

114 

region  of, 

115 

Fungicides, 

208 

Garden,  The  Fruit, 

care  of, 

183 

club  projects,                                      ' 

190 

demonstrations, 

195 

enemies  of. 

185 

INDEX 

Garden,  The  Fruit  (Co«ft«M^d). 

plan  of,  „                                  180 

play  contests,  197 

pruning  of,  184 

soil  and  location  for,  180 


spraying, 


188 


varieties  in,  181 

Garden,  The  Vegetable, 

chapter  on,  165 

clubs,  177 

cultivation  of,  171 

demonstrations,  177' 

insect  enemies  of,  174 

location  and  soil  for,  166 

plan  for,  170 

planting  time,  168 

play  contests,  177 

Grasses, 

for  meadows,  155 

for  pastures,  160 

uses  of,  155 

varieties  of,  113 

Grasshoppers,  78 

Harvesting, 

alfalfa  crop,  141 

by  "hogging  down"  corn,  56 

red-clover  crop,  127 

the  corn  crop,                                                 ,  .  50 

the  potato  crop,  102 

the  wheat  crop,  71 

with  corn  binder,  52 

Hessian  Fly,  The,                         ^  78 


INDEX 

r 

iFIOGS, 

balanced  ration  for,  326 

breeds  of,  316 

care  of,  319 

chapter  on,  315 

chief  region  for,  315 

club  projects,  335 

demonstrations  with,  334 

diseases  of,  328 

feeding,  323 

houses,  319 
play  contests,                                                            .    335 

prevention  of  cholera  in,  332 

Home, 

and  farm  management,  375 

beautifying  the  grounds,  389 

grounds  and  wood  lot,  389 

Horses, 

breeds  of,  302 

care  of,  307 

chapter  on,  296 

classes  of,  297 

clubs,  314 

defects  of,  306 

demonstrations  with,  313 

feeding  of,  310 

judging  of,  305 

leading  states  for,  296 

play  contests,  314 

Horticulture, 

section  on,  165 

Hotbed,  The,  171 

Humus,  227 


INDEX 

Implements, 

farm  and  mechanics,  chapter  on,  408 
Inoculation, 

of  soil  for  alfalfa,  140 

Insecticides,  208 

Kerosene  Emulsion,  214 

Legumes,  ' 

chapter  on,  146 

for  meadows,  1^^ 

for  pastures,  1^^ 

uses  of,  11^ 

varieties  of,  1 1^ 

Lime, 

use  of  on  soils,  24o 

Lime  Sulphur  Spray,  210 

Manure, 

application  of,  242 

barnyard,  -                      238 

242 

green,  ^^^ 

preventing  loss  from,  241 

Meadows, 

care  of,  156 

chapter  on,  154 

grasses  for,       '  ,                                                     155 

permanent,  158 

requirements  of,  154 

seed  mixtures  for,  156 

Milk, 

cooling  of,  286 

producing  clean,  ^                                                283 

tests  for  the  dairy  cow,  .         277 


INDEX 

Nitrogen, 

commercial  fertilizers,  243 

gathering  bacteria,  117 

Note-Books, 

records  in,  7 

Oats,  Chapter  on,  80 

Paris  Green  Spray,  212 

Pastures,  159 

care  of,  161 

grasses  for,                                                ■  160 

mixtures  of  seed  for,  160 

requirements  of,  159 

Peanut,  The, 

uses  of,  152 

Phosphorus  Fertilizers,  245 

Planter, 

grading  seed  for,  38 

testing  the,  41 

I*LAY  Contests, 

cattle,  292 

corn,  61 

fruit  garden,  197 

hogs,  335 

horses,  314 

potato.  111 

poultry,  372 

roads,  430 

sheep,  344 

soil,  262 

tomato,  206 

vegetable  garden,  177 


INDEX 

Pollen,                    *  4,  26 

Potassium  Fertilizers,  245 
Potatoes, 

as  a  farm  crop,  99 

chapter  on,  98 

cutting  the  seed,  "                                             106 

clubs,  111 

demonstrations,  111 

enemies,  107 

play  contests,  •                                       111 


region, 


99 


selection  of  seed,  103 

soil  and  seed  bed  for,  100 

storing  of,  102 

the  plant,  98 

Poultry, 

chapter  on,  346 

clubs,  372 

demonstrations,            .  371 

diseases  of,  367 

housing  of,  363 

increasing  demands,  347 

leading  states  for,  347 

play  contests,  372 

Pruning, 

of  fruit  trees,  184 

tomatoes,  202 

"Rag-Doll"  Seed  Tester,  36 

Ration, 

balanced  for  dairy  cows,  282 

balanced  for  hogs,  326 

for  fattening  chickens,  359 


INDEX 

Ration  (Continued). 

for  laying  hens,                                  ,  358 

for  sheep,  341 

Resin  Lime  Spray,  214 

Roads, 

chapter  on,  420 

construction  of  earth,  425 

club  projects,  430 

demonstrations  with,  428 

importance  of  public,  420 

location  of,  422 

maintenance  of  earth,  426 

play  contests,  430 

types  of,  422 

Rope-Tying,  412 

Rotation  of  Crops,  12 

and  fertility,  248 

plan  for,  249 

Rust, 

wheat,  74 

Sawdust  Seed  Testers,  33 

Scab, 

in  wheat,  73 

potato,  107 

Seed, 

bed  and  planting,  43 

bed  for  wheat,  70 

care  of  shelled,  40 

cleaning  red  clover,  126 

curing  of  com,  18 

cutting  potato,  106 

germination  box,""^ '  33 

grading  for  planter,  39 


INDEX 

Seed  {Co7ttinued). 

loss  from  poor,  1" 

mixtures  for  meadows,  l5o 

saving  of,                .  *^ 

selecting  wheat,  '  ^ 

selection  bed,          /y  24 

selection  of  potato,  10^ 

testmg,  ^'■ 

various  testers  for,^  36 

Seed  Bed, 

preparing  the,  ^ 

Sheep, 

agricultural  importance  of,  336 

breeds  of,                                            •  338 

chapter  on,  336 

club  projects,  344 

demonstrations,                            .  343 

feeding  of,  340 

play  contests,  344 

Shocker, 

the  corn,  53 

Silo,  The,  53 

Smut, 

com,  13 

treatment  for  wheat,  76 

Soil, 

acid  and  liming,  247 

barnyard  manure  and,  238 

capacity  of  for  water,  252 

chapter  on,  225 

club  projects,                                          '  262 

cultivation  of,  1^2 

demonstrations,  261 

drainage,                                                           "  256 


INDEX 

9 

Soil  (Continued). 

erosion  of,  232 

fertility  and  legumes,  122 

fertility  of,  236 

forms  of  water  in,  251 

for  potatoes,  100 

inoculation  for  alfalfa,  140 

moisture,  chapter  on,  251 

organic  matter  in,  227 

origin  of,  225 

play  contests,  262 

requirements  for  alfalfa,  138 

structure  of,  230 

texture  of,       ,                                   ^  228 

tillage  and  water,  254 

Soy-Beans, 

feeding  value  of,    ^  152 

Spraying, 

machines  for,                                                 ,^  191 

mixtures  for,  208 

of  fruit  gardens,  188 

tomatoes,  204 

Stover,  Corn,  52 

Tilth  of  Soils,  231 

Tomato,  The, 

as  a  garden  crop,  201 

chapter  on,  201 

club  project,  207 

culture,  202 

demonstrations  with,  206 

harvesting  and  marketing,  204 

play  contests,  206 


INDEX 

TovLATO,  The  (Continued). 

pruning  and  staking,  202 

varieties  of,  202 

Tuberculosis, 

in  cattle,  289 

in  hogs,  330 

suppressing  in  cattle,                            ,  290 

tuberculin  test  for,  290 

Tubers,  99 

Vegetables, 

enemies  of,  174 

garden,  165 

transplanting  of,  171 


Vetch, 

common. 


150 


hairy,  150 

types  of,  150 

Water, 

capillary,  252 

gravitational,  25 1 

Weeds, 

as  enemies  of  alfalfa,  143 

killing  in  corn-field,  46 

soil  and  tillage,  254 

Wheat, 

chapter  on,  64 

diseases  and  enemies  of,  72 

harvesting,  71 

importance  of,  64 

planting,  71 

seed  bed  for,                                                     '  70 


INDEX 

Wheat  {Continued), 

selecting  seed,  7C 

spring,              '  69 

types  of,  66 

winter,  67 

WiREVVORMS,  12 

Wood  Lot, 

chapter  on,  389 

enemies  of,  396 

the  farm,  392 

Worms, 

com  root,  9 


f 


